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Including water balance in our models of climate impacts on park resources is a step closer to understanding the process of water use by plants and animals, both aquatic and terrestrial. This improved understanding translates to better predictions of how park resources may fare in the future as the climate changes. Better understanding and predictions mean park managers may be able to prevent some undesirable effects of climate change or may be able to use restoration to undo damage that has already occurred.

The law of water balance states that the inflows to any water system or area is equal to its outflows plus change in storage during a time interval.[2][3] In hydrology, a water balance equation can be used to describe the flow of water in and out of a system. A system can be one of several hydrological or water domains, such as a column of soil, a drainage basin, an irrigation area or a city.

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An understanding of water budgets and underlying hydrologic processes provides a foundation for effective water-resource and environmental planning and management. Observed changes in water budgets of an area over time can be used to assess the effects of climate variability and human activities on water resources. Comparison of water budgets from different areas allows the effects of factors such as geology, soils, vegetation, and land use on the hydrologic cycle to be quantified.

This equation uses the principles of conservation of mass in a closed system, whereby any water entering a system (via precipitation), must be transferred into either evaporation, transpiration, surface runoff (eventually reaching the channel and leaving in the form of river discharge), or stored in the ground. This equation requires the system to be closed, and where it is not (for example when surface runoff contributes to a different basin), this must be taken into account.

A water balance can be used to help manage water supply and predict where there may be water shortages. It is also used in irrigation, runoff assessment (e.g. through the RainOff model [6]), flood control and pollution control. Further it is used in the design of subsurface drainage systems which may be horizontal (i.e. using pipes, tile drains or ditches) or vertical (drainage by wells).[7] To estimate the drainage requirement, the use of a hydrogeological water balance and a groundwater model (e.g. SahysMod[8]) may be instrumental.

A WRS, such as a river, an aquifer or a lake, must obey water balance. For example, the volume of water that goes into an aquifer must be equal to the amount that leaves it plus its change in storage. Under various drivers, such as, climate change, population increase, and bad management, water storage of many WRS is decreasing, say per decade. This means that the volume of water in a WRS decreased after a decade, i.e., inflow was less than outflow during that time interval.[11]

In general, a WUS is a water construct of a user, such as a city, an industry, an irrigation zone, or a region, and not a geographic area. The schematic of a WUS shows the inflows and the outflows. For a WUS, change in storage is negligible (relative to its inflow) under a proper time interval, hence water balance becomes inflow equal to outflow with nine Water Path Types (WPT):[12]

Of course, instead of a river, it could be an aquifer that supplies water to a WUS as a main source. Let us briefly examine an urban water supply on an annual basis as a simplified example. It has negligible ET and PP (WUS is a piped network), has some limited amount of water from groundwater (OS), has return flow to the main source (RF) after passing through a Wastewater Treatment Plant, and RP type has various Water Path Instances (WPI), such as leakage, and water taken to irrigate green zones. Considering that the annual change in storage of an urban area is negligible, water balance equation becomes

The fluids of the body are primarily composed of water, which in turn contains a multitude of substances.[1] One such group of substances includes electrolytes such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, phosphate, chloride, etc. Another group includes metabolites, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, glucose, urea, etc. A third important group of substances contained within the water of our body, which includes proteins, most of which are vital for our existence. Examples of proteins include coagulation factors, immunoglobulins, albumin, and various hormones.[1] As the distribution of the fluid in the body and the substances found within is critical for the maintenance of intracellular and extracellular functions pivotal to survival, the body has developed mechanisms to control compartment composition tightly. However, various clinical pathologies can alter the fluid composition and its constituents in the multiple compartments of the human body, which can have deleterious effects on our health and often require intensive interventions to monitor and maintain normal physiological conditions.[2] This article will primarily cover the physiologic composition of water in the human body, differentiate the various compartments in the body and their associated volumes and compositions, depict how to measure the different volumes, and delve into the clinical relevance associated with disturbances of the normal physiological conditions.

At a cellular level, the distribution of the various fluid compartments in the body is paramount for the maintenance of health, function, and survival. For the average 70 kg man, 60% of the total body weight is comprised of water, equaling 42L. The body's fluid separates into two main compartments: Intracellular fluid volume (ICFV) and extracellular fluid volume (ECFV).

Several principles control the distribution of water between the various fluid compartments. To understand the different principles, it is essential to realize the following: ingestion and excretion of water and electrolytes are under tight regulation to maintain consistent total body water (TBW) and total body osmolarity (TBO). To manage these two parameters, body water will redistribute itself to maintain a steady-state so that the osmolarity of all bodily fluid compartments is identical to total body osmolarity.

Several different factors mediate the redistribution of water between the two ECF compartments: hydrostatic pressure, oncotic pressure, and the osmotic force of the fluid. Combining these two components yields the Starling equation: Jv = Kfc [(Pc - Pi] - n (Op-Oi)].[7] This equation determines the rate of fluid across the capillary membrane (Jv) and takes the difference between the hydrostatic pressures of the capillary fluid (Pc) and the interstitial fluid (Pi), as well as the oncotic pressure of the capillary fluid (Op) and the interstitial fluid (Oi). It also takes into account the osmotic force between the two compartments (n).

Additionally, there is a relationship between the interstitial fluid and intracellular fluid. These two environments very closely influence each other, as the membrane of the cell separates them. Generally, nutrients diffuse into the cell with waste products coming out into the interstitial space. Ions are typically barred from crossing the membrane but can occasionally cross via active transport or under specific conditions. Water can move freely across the membrane and is directed by the osmotic gradient between the two spaces. Changes in the intracellular fluid volume result from alterations in the osmolarity of the ECF but do not respond to isosmotic changes in extracellular volume.[8] However, any flow of water in or out of the cell membrane will have proportional changes in the ECFV. If a disturbance causes ECF osmolarity to increase, water will flow out of the cell and into the extracellular space to balance the osmotic gradient; however, the total body osmolarity will remain higher than what is typical, and the cell will shrink. If a disturbance were to cause a decrease in ECF osmolarity, then water will move from the ECF into the ICF to attain an osmolar equilibrium; however, the total body osmolarity will remain lower than normal, and the cell will swell. Third, were isosmotic fluid to enter the extracellular space, then there would be no net changes in the ICF, and the ECFV will increase.

Aside from the significance of the study of water balance has on our physiologic understanding of the human body, the idea behind it is commonly seen in pathology and is presented clinically on a daily basis. Various conditions lead to an imbalance of water in the different compartments of the body; the specific imbalance can show in different ways and can be treated differently as well. The following presents five clinical scenarios where alterations in water balance can present. Each will have an accompanying analysis of ECF volume, ECF osmolarity, ICF volume, and ICF osmolarity.

Groundwater is a life-sustaining resource that supplies water to billions of people, plays a central part in irrigated agriculture and influences the health of many ecosystems1,2. Most assessments of global water resources have focused on surface water3,4,5,6, but unsustainable depletion of groundwater has recently been documented on both regional7,8 and global scales9,10,11. It remains unclear how the rate of global groundwater depletion compares to the rate of natural renewal and the supply needed to support ecosystems. Here we define the groundwater footprint (the area required to sustain groundwater use and groundwater-dependent ecosystem services) and show that humans are overexploiting groundwater in many large aquifers that are critical to agriculture, especially in Asia and North America. We estimate that the size of the global groundwater footprint is currently about 3.5 times the actual area of aquifers and that about 1.7 billion people live in areas where groundwater resources and/or groundwater-dependent ecosystems are under threat. That said, 80 per cent of aquifers have a groundwater footprint that is less than their area, meaning that the net global value is driven by a few heavily overexploited aquifers. The groundwater footprint is the first tool suitable for consistently evaluating the use, renewal and ecosystem requirements of groundwater at an aquifer scale. It can be combined with the water footprint and virtual water calculations12,13,14, and be used to assess the potential for increasing agricultural yields with renewable groundwaterref15. The method could be modified to evaluate other resources with renewal rates that are slow and spatially heterogeneous, such as fisheries, forestry or soil. ff782bc1db