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After years of research, I was able to scientifically explain and develop ancient Hindu art of Maya (vision by displaying images on air). It’s a method to illuminate air by thinking. Ancient Hindu sacred texts and epics are filled with narration of This kind of communication and display technologies, and I am excited to bring these concepts into modern era humans of the world using modern age technologies. Detail of concept is given below
After years of research, I was able to scientifically explain and develop ancient Hindu art of Maya (vision by displaying images on air). It’s a method to illuminate air by thinking. Ancient Hindu sacred texts and epics are filled with narration of This kind of communication and display technologies, and I am excited to bring these concepts into modern era humans of the world using modern age technologies. Detail of concept is given below
When an electric field exceeds a certain critical value Ec (critical field for ionization), the field can pull electrons out of atoms (ionize the atoms), and then the freed electrons can run into other atoms, causing those atoms to emit light. The value of Ec depends on the density of the air in which the electric field exists.
When an electric field exceeds a certain critical value Ec (critical field for ionization), the field can pull electrons out of atoms (ionize the atoms), and then the freed electrons can run into other atoms, causing those atoms to emit light. The value of Ec depends on the density of the air in which the electric field exists.
New concept is that, Neurons in brain can emit electric signals. Electric signal can produce electromagnetic field. Thoughts can stimulate neuron to produce electric signal. Many small electromagnetic fields can be combined to produce large electromagnetic field, by aligning source of EM field. Brain contains billions of neurons. By controlling thoughts, it is possible to synchronously stimulate each neuron in brain such that EM field produced is perfectly aligned to generate a EM field strong enough to ionize air molecule at a particular point. This electromagnetic field can be used for Pushing electric field at that point beyond critical field to ionize air. By changing thought and there by varying individual neurons firing we can create air ions at desired location in the vicinity of brain. By switching off electric field (by thought control) momentarily at each frame point, we can illuminate air molecules as excited air molecule goes back to neutral state and release photons. At low density of air, critical Field for ionization is E= 2.0X 102 N/C, and thus light is emitted by the atoms in the air.During deionization Oxygen gives off green or red light. Nitrogen glows blue or purple. These are the primary colors needed for displaying full color image. And by selectively concentrating fields at different locations (Voxel, 3D version of pixel in a raster image) we can create an image or video in thin air.
New concept is that, Neurons in brain can emit electric signals. Electric signal can produce electromagnetic field. Thoughts can stimulate neuron to produce electric signal. Many small electromagnetic fields can be combined to produce large electromagnetic field, by aligning source of EM field. Brain contains billions of neurons. By controlling thoughts, it is possible to synchronously stimulate each neuron in brain such that EM field produced is perfectly aligned to generate a EM field strong enough to ionize air molecule at a particular point. This electromagnetic field can be used for Pushing electric field at that point beyond critical field to ionize air. By changing thought and there by varying individual neurons firing we can create air ions at desired location in the vicinity of brain. By switching off electric field (by thought control) momentarily at each frame point, we can illuminate air molecules as excited air molecule goes back to neutral state and release photons. At low density of air, critical Field for ionization is E= 2.0X 102 N/C, and thus light is emitted by the atoms in the air.During deionization Oxygen gives off green or red light. Nitrogen glows blue or purple. These are the primary colors needed for displaying full color image. And by selectively concentrating fields at different locations (Voxel, 3D version of pixel in a raster image) we can create an image or video in thin air.
What kind of thoughts can generate such an effect, can be found out by carrying out a series of brain and thought simulation on super computer!
What kind of thoughts can generate such an effect, can be found out by carrying out a series of brain and thought simulation on super computer!
Electrical signals in neurons happens through ion channels. The positive ions (sodium, calcium) that enter the cytoplasm decrease the electronegativity of the membrane potential i.e. they lead to depolarization of the membrane, while the negative ions entering the cytoplasm (chloride) increase the electronegativity of the membrane potential i.e. they hyperpolarize the membrane. The flow of ions from the extracellular space towards the cytoplasm is called influx, while the opposite flow is called efflux. Certain ion channels and ion pumps extrude ions from the cytoplasm towards the extracellular space, however here the positive ion efflux (potassium) leads to hyperpolarization, while the negative ion efflux (hydrogencarbonate) leads to depolarization! Normal neuronal membrane potentials vary over a range from about -90 mV to +50 mV. The ion channels in the neuronal membranes are ligand or voltage gated. In the first case ligands are the neuromediator molecules that bind to the receptor ion channels and open their gates causing flux of ions. In the second case the ion channels are sensitive to the voltage across the membrane and their gates open and close in concert with the membrane potential changes. The main communication between two neurons is achieved via axo-dendritic synapses located at the top of the dendritic spines that are typical for the cortical neurons. It is known that the dendritic postsynaptic membranes convert the neuromediator signal into postsynaptic electric current. The neuromediator molecules bind to specific postsynaptic ion channels and open their gates. The ion species that enter the dendritic cytoplasm change the membrane potential. axial dendritic voltage of tens of millivolts could be measured if there are multiple dendritic inputs. Thus the electric intensity along the dendritic axis in different regions of the dendritic tree could be as high as 10 V/m (if 300-400 excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) s are temporally and spatially summated). This result is supported by the in vivo estimate of the electric fields (E ~ 1-10 V/m) by Jaffe & Nuccitelli (1977) and the reported data by Tuszynski et al. (1997) that quote intracellular electric intensity values from 0.01 V/m to 10 V/m.
Electrical signals in neurons happens through ion channels. The positive ions (sodium, calcium) that enter the cytoplasm decrease the electronegativity of the membrane potential i.e. they lead to depolarization of the membrane, while the negative ions entering the cytoplasm (chloride) increase the electronegativity of the membrane potential i.e. they hyperpolarize the membrane. The flow of ions from the extracellular space towards the cytoplasm is called influx, while the opposite flow is called efflux. Certain ion channels and ion pumps extrude ions from the cytoplasm towards the extracellular space, however here the positive ion efflux (potassium) leads to hyperpolarization, while the negative ion efflux (hydrogencarbonate) leads to depolarization! Normal neuronal membrane potentials vary over a range from about -90 mV to +50 mV. The ion channels in the neuronal membranes are ligand or voltage gated. In the first case ligands are the neuromediator molecules that bind to the receptor ion channels and open their gates causing flux of ions. In the second case the ion channels are sensitive to the voltage across the membrane and their gates open and close in concert with the membrane potential changes. The main communication between two neurons is achieved via axo-dendritic synapses located at the top of the dendritic spines that are typical for the cortical neurons. It is known that the dendritic postsynaptic membranes convert the neuromediator signal into postsynaptic electric current. The neuromediator molecules bind to specific postsynaptic ion channels and open their gates. The ion species that enter the dendritic cytoplasm change the membrane potential. axial dendritic voltage of tens of millivolts could be measured if there are multiple dendritic inputs. Thus the electric intensity along the dendritic axis in different regions of the dendritic tree could be as high as 10 V/m (if 300-400 excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) s are temporally and spatially summated). This result is supported by the in vivo estimate of the electric fields (E ~ 1-10 V/m) by Jaffe & Nuccitelli (1977) and the reported data by Tuszynski et al. (1997) that quote intracellular electric intensity values from 0.01 V/m to 10 V/m.
By superposition of electric and magnetic field by neuron firing we can create stronger field to ionize air at particular point. In order to find out what particular thought will fire that sequence of neuron firing will be able to display a particular image in air. I am planning to use CAE and Math software to simulate a portion of human brains in super computer. The main difference is that we cannot visualize brain as a single copper volume of individual neurons as single inductor only, but each neuron is visualized as a cell or Battery(source)-Inductor-Resistor-Switch circuit. parallel and/or serial interconnects are approximated depending on real neuron interconnects.
By superposition of electric and magnetic field by neuron firing we can create stronger field to ionize air at particular point. In order to find out what particular thought will fire that sequence of neuron firing will be able to display a particular image in air. I am planning to use CAE and Math software to simulate a portion of human brains in super computer. The main difference is that we cannot visualize brain as a single copper volume of individual neurons as single inductor only, but each neuron is visualized as a cell or Battery(source)-Inductor-Resistor-Switch circuit. parallel and/or serial interconnects are approximated depending on real neuron interconnects.
Even though cumulative field of neurons in brain can ionize air, local field near neurons is lower so it cannot affect neurons. For example, consider an electromagnet with copper wires, it can repel and attract objects with huge force since cumulative force is large, however reaction or repulsion between individual copper wire will be small since local electromagnetic force is small.
Even though cumulative field of neurons in brain can ionize air, local field near neurons is lower so it cannot affect neurons. For example, consider an electromagnet with copper wires, it can repel and attract objects with huge force since cumulative force is large, however reaction or repulsion between individual copper wire will be small since local electromagnetic force is small.
This will be the future of communication and display no hardware or software is required for displaying images in air for communicating with others or entertainment; just thinking will be enough to illuminate air for displaying images. This would be the Future of Communication & Entertainment of Humans by Illuminating Air for Displaying Images by just Thinking.
This will be the future of communication and display no hardware or software is required for displaying images in air for communicating with others or entertainment; just thinking will be enough to illuminate air for displaying images. This would be the Future of Communication & Entertainment of Humans by Illuminating Air for Displaying Images by just Thinking.
Basics of Electromagnetism of Neurons
Basics of Electromagnetism of Neurons
Physiologically, the electrical signal of relevance to the nervous system is the difference in electrical potential between the interior of a neuron and the surrounding extracellular medium (Schneidman, 2001). The ionic concentration gradients across the cell membrane and the membrane permeability to these ions, determine the membrane potential. The cell membrane is a lipid bilayer, which is impermeable to most ions. Electrically, the membrane is a capacitor separating the charges residing along its inner and outer surface, from both sides. While the resistance of the lipid bilayer by itself is quite high, the resistance of the membrane is significantly reduced by the numerous aqueous pores in the membrane, termed ion channel
Physiologically, the electrical signal of relevance to the nervous system is the difference in electrical potential between the interior of a neuron and the surrounding extracellular medium (Schneidman, 2001). The ionic concentration gradients across the cell membrane and the membrane permeability to these ions, determine the membrane potential. The cell membrane is a lipid bilayer, which is impermeable to most ions. Electrically, the membrane is a capacitor separating the charges residing along its inner and outer surface, from both sides. While the resistance of the lipid bilayer by itself is quite high, the resistance of the membrane is significantly reduced by the numerous aqueous pores in the membrane, termed ion channel
The ions flow into and out of the cell due to both voltage and concentration gradients. However, without external stimuli, these different forces drive the cell to an equilibrium point - the resting membrane potential Vm of a neuron, which can be explained from basic physical chemistry principles. Under these resting conditions, the electrical gradient and the ionic concentration gradient balance each other for each of the ion types. The potential inside the cell membrane of a neuron, resulting from the accumulation of charges on the membrane, is then about -70 mV relative to that of the surrounding bath, and the cell is said to be polarized.
The ions flow into and out of the cell due to both voltage and concentration gradients. However, without external stimuli, these different forces drive the cell to an equilibrium point - the resting membrane potential Vm of a neuron, which can be explained from basic physical chemistry principles. Under these resting conditions, the electrical gradient and the ionic concentration gradient balance each other for each of the ion types. The potential inside the cell membrane of a neuron, resulting from the accumulation of charges on the membrane, is then about -70 mV relative to that of the surrounding bath, and the cell is said to be polarized.
The positive ions (sodium, calcium) that enter the cytoplasm decrease the electronegativity of the membrane potential i.e. they lead to depolarization of the membrane, while the negative ions entering the cytoplasm (chloride) increase the electronegativity of the membrane potential i.e. they hyperpolarize the membrane. The flow of ions from the extracellular space towards the cytoplasm is called influx, while the opposite flow is called efflux. Certain ion channels and ion pumps extrude ions from the cytoplasm towards the extracellular space, however here the positive ion efflux (potassium) leads to hyperpolarization, while the negative ion efflux (hydrogencarbonate) leads to depolarization! Normal neuronal membrane potentials vary over a range from about -90 mV to +50 mV.
The positive ions (sodium, calcium) that enter the cytoplasm decrease the electronegativity of the membrane potential i.e. they lead to depolarization of the membrane, while the negative ions entering the cytoplasm (chloride) increase the electronegativity of the membrane potential i.e. they hyperpolarize the membrane. The flow of ions from the extracellular space towards the cytoplasm is called influx, while the opposite flow is called efflux. Certain ion channels and ion pumps extrude ions from the cytoplasm towards the extracellular space, however here the positive ion efflux (potassium) leads to hyperpolarization, while the negative ion efflux (hydrogencarbonate) leads to depolarization! Normal neuronal membrane potentials vary over a range from about -90 mV to +50 mV.
The ion channels in the neuronal membranes are ligand or voltage gated. In the first case ligands are the neuromediator molecules that bind to the receptor ion channels and open their gates causing flux of ions. In the second case the ion channels are sensitive to the voltage across the membrane and their gates open and close in concert with the membrane potential changes.
The ion channels in the neuronal membranes are ligand or voltage gated. In the first case ligands are the neuromediator molecules that bind to the receptor ion channels and open their gates causing flux of ions. In the second case the ion channels are sensitive to the voltage across the membrane and their gates open and close in concert with the membrane potential changes.
The main communication between two neurons is achieved via axo-dendritic synapses located at the top of the dendritic spines that are typical for the cortical neurons. It is known that the dendritic postsynaptic membranes convert the neuromediator signal into postsynaptic electric current. The neuromediator molecules bind to specific postsynaptic ion channels and open their gates. The ion species that enter the dendritic cytoplasm change the membrane potential
The main communication between two neurons is achieved via axo-dendritic synapses located at the top of the dendritic spines that are typical for the cortical neurons. It is known that the dendritic postsynaptic membranes convert the neuromediator signal into postsynaptic electric current. The neuromediator molecules bind to specific postsynaptic ion channels and open their gates. The ion species that enter the dendritic cytoplasm change the membrane potential
Electric field in dendrites
Electric field in dendrites
Sayer et al. (1990) have measured the evoked excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) by single firing of the presynaptic terminal. In their study 71 unitary EPSPs evoked in CA1 pyramidal neurons by activation of single CA3 pyramidal neurons were recorded. The peak amplitudes of these EPSPs ranged from 0.03 to 0.665 mV with a mean of 0.131 mV. Recently it become clear that the remote synapses produce higher EPSPs or in other words they ‘speak louder’ than the proximal synapses so there is no sense to average the EPSPs (Spruston, 2000). In the calculations done further in this paper we will consider that the single EPSP magnitude is 0.2mV (London & Segev, 2001).
Sayer et al. (1990) have measured the evoked excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) by single firing of the presynaptic terminal. In their study 71 unitary EPSPs evoked in CA1 pyramidal neurons by activation of single CA3 pyramidal neurons were recorded. The peak amplitudes of these EPSPs ranged from 0.03 to 0.665 mV with a mean of 0.131 mV. Recently it become clear that the remote synapses produce higher EPSPs or in other words they ‘speak louder’ than the proximal synapses so there is no sense to average the EPSPs (Spruston, 2000). In the calculations done further in this paper we will consider that the single EPSP magnitude is 0.2mV (London & Segev, 2001).
Considering that the excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) and the inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) could summate over space and time it is not surprise that axial dendritic voltage of tens of millivolts could be measured if there are multiple dendritic inputs. Thus the electric intensity along the dendritic axis in different regions of the dendritic tree could be as high as 10 V/m (if 300-400 EPSPs are temporally and spatially summated). This result is supported by the in vivo estimate of the electric fields (E ~ 1-10 V/m) by Jaffe & Nuccitelli (1977) and the reported data by Tuszynski et al. (1997) that quote intracellular electric intensity values from 0.01 V/m to 10 V/m.
Considering that the excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) and the inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) could summate over space and time it is not surprise that axial dendritic voltage of tens of millivolts could be measured if there are multiple dendritic inputs. Thus the electric intensity along the dendritic axis in different regions of the dendritic tree could be as high as 10 V/m (if 300-400 EPSPs are temporally and spatially summated). This result is supported by the in vivo estimate of the electric fields (E ~ 1-10 V/m) by Jaffe & Nuccitelli (1977) and the reported data by Tuszynski et al. (1997) that quote intracellular electric intensity values from 0.01 V/m to 10 V/m.
Electric currents in dendrites
Electric currents in dendrites
From the Ohm’s law we could calculate the axial current ia
From the Ohm’s law we could calculate the axial current ia
applied voltage V0 upon the dendritic projection:
applied voltage V0 upon the dendritic projection:
if we know the
if we know the
where l is the direction along the axis of the dendrite. The same equation is valid for the axial current outside the dendrite; the only difference is that we should use the re value. The currents flowing along the dendrite under applied depolarizing or hyperpolarizing impulses are known as local currents. If we have depolarizing impulse there is positive current i+ flowing from the excited area towards the non-excited regions inside the cytoplasm, while outside of the dendrite the positive currents flow towards the place of excitation.
where l is the direction along the axis of the dendrite. The same equation is valid for the axial current outside the dendrite; the only difference is that we should use the re value. The currents flowing along the dendrite under applied depolarizing or hyperpolarizing impulses are known as local currents. If we have depolarizing impulse there is positive current i+ flowing from the excited area towards the non-excited regions inside the cytoplasm, while outside of the dendrite the positive currents flow towards the place of excitation.
Taking into account that we obtain:
Taking into account that we obtain:
(72)
(72)
Calculation of the current through the dendrite after applied EPSP with magnitude of 0.2mV gives us:
Calculation of the current through the dendrite after applied EPSP with magnitude of 0.2mV gives us:
(73)
(73)
This result is less than the registered evoked inhibitory postsynaptic currents (eIPSCs) which amplitude varies from 20pA to 100pA (Kirischuk et al., 1999; Akaike et al., 2002; Akaike & Moorhouse, 2003).
This result is less than the registered evoked inhibitory postsynaptic currents (eIPSCs) which amplitude varies from 20pA to 100pA (Kirischuk et al., 1999; Akaike et al., 2002; Akaike & Moorhouse, 2003).
The current density J through the cross section of the neuronal projection could be calculated from:
The current density J through the cross section of the neuronal projection could be calculated from:
(74)
(74)
Magnetic field in dendrites
Magnetic field in dendrites
The currents inside dendrites are experimentally measured to be from 20pA to 100pA for GABAergic synapses (Akaike & Moorhouse, 2003). Using the formula
The currents inside dendrites are experimentally measured to be from 20pA to 100pA for GABAergic synapses (Akaike & Moorhouse, 2003). Using the formula
(75)
(75)
we can find the magnetic intensity for a contour G with length l= p d
we can find the magnetic intensity for a contour G with length l= p d
that interweaves the whole current iA . For dendrite with d~1mm we obtain:
that interweaves the whole current iA . For dendrite with d~1mm we obtain:
(76)
(76)
If we consider that the water and the microtubules form a system augmenting the magnetic strength known as ferrofluid (Frick et al., 2003) then in the best-case with effective magnetic permeability
If we consider that the water and the microtubules form a system augmenting the magnetic strength known as ferrofluid (Frick et al., 2003) then in the best-case with effective magnetic permeability
meff » 10, where , we will obtain
meff » 10, where , we will obtain
0
0
the maximal magnitude of the magnetic induction B inside the neuronal projection:
the maximal magnitude of the magnetic induction B inside the neuronal projection:
(77)
(77)
B = m eff m0H
B = m eff m0H
(78)
(78)
B = 10 ´ 4p ´ 10-7H.m -1´31.8 ´ 10-6 A.m-1 » 4 ´ 10-10T
B = 10 ´ 4p ´ 10-7H.m -1´31.8 ´ 10-6 A.m-1 » 4 ´ 10-10T
The Earth's magnetic field is on the order of half a Gauss (5x10-5 T). Gauss is unit used for small fields like the Earth's magnetic field and is 10-4 T. It is obvious that the magnetic field generated by the dendritic currents cannot be used as informational signal because the noise resulting from the Earth's magnetic field will suffocate it.
The Earth's magnetic field is on the order of half a Gauss (5x10-5 T). Gauss is unit used for small fields like the Earth's magnetic field and is 10-4 T. It is obvious that the magnetic field generated by the dendritic currents cannot be used as informational signal because the noise resulting from the Earth's magnetic field will suffocate it.
The nonlinear properties of the neuronal output are due to located at the axonal hillock voltage-gated Na+ channels that exhibit positive feedback. When a critical threshold of -55mV of the transmembrane voltage is reached in the axonal hillock more and more sodium ion channels do open. Considering the decrement along the dendrites a rough estimate of 300-400 spatially and temporally summated EPSPs are needed in order to elevate the voltage with 15-20mV in the soma and to evoke axonal spike. The magnetic and the electric field strength are expected to be the same as in the dendrites with maximal magnetic strength of 10-10 T and maximal electric strength of 10 V/m.
The nonlinear properties of the neuronal output are due to located at the axonal hillock voltage-gated Na+ channels that exhibit positive feedback. When a critical threshold of -55mV of the transmembrane voltage is reached in the axonal hillock more and more sodium ion channels do open. Considering the decrement along the dendrites a rough estimate of 300-400 spatially and temporally summated EPSPs are needed in order to elevate the voltage with 15-20mV in the soma and to evoke axonal spike. The magnetic and the electric field strength are expected to be the same as in the dendrites with maximal magnetic strength of 10-10 T and maximal electric strength of 10 V/m.
Axonal morphophysiology
Axonal morphophysiology
Neurons output information via long projections called axons. The diameter of axons varies from 1mm to 25 mm in humans. Axons with small diameter could be non-myelinated. However the larger axons in CNS are ensheathed by multiple membrane layers known as myelin. Myelin is produced by supportive glial cells called oligodendrocytes. Oligodendrocytic membrane rotates around the axon and forms multiple-layered phospholipid structure that insulates the axon from the surrounding environment. One axon is insulated by numerous oligodendrocytes however there are tiny places where the axonal membrane is non-myelinated. They are located between two oligodendrocytic membranes and are called nodes of Ranvier. In the peripheral nervous system the myelin is produced not by oligodendrocytes but by Schwann cells.
Neurons output information via long projections called axons. The diameter of axons varies from 1mm to 25 mm in humans. Axons with small diameter could be non-myelinated. However the larger axons in CNS are ensheathed by multiple membrane layers known as myelin. Myelin is produced by supportive glial cells called oligodendrocytes. Oligodendrocytic membrane rotates around the axon and forms multiple-layered phospholipid structure that insulates the axon from the surrounding environment. One axon is insulated by numerous oligodendrocytes however there are tiny places where the axonal membrane is non-myelinated. They are located between two oligodendrocytic membranes and are called nodes of Ranvier. In the peripheral nervous system the myelin is produced not by oligodendrocytes but by Schwann cells.
When voltage change in the axonal hillock reaches threshold potential of - 55mV, action potential begins. Membrane becomes depolarized due to Na+ gates opening, allowing Na+ to rush into cell through voltage-gated Na+ channels. This is an all-or-none event, in that once threshold is reached, it will happen. When inside of membrane is depolarized to +40mV, Na+ gates shut and K+ gates open. K+ rushes out trough open K+ gates (Na+ gates are closed and inactive). Membrane becomes re-polarized and may be hyperpolarized (overshoot). Refractory period occurs while Na+ gates of the Na+ channels remain closed. Membrane will not respond again until Na+ gates are active.
When voltage change in the axonal hillock reaches threshold potential of - 55mV, action potential begins. Membrane becomes depolarized due to Na+ gates opening, allowing Na+ to rush into cell through voltage-gated Na+ channels. This is an all-or-none event, in that once threshold is reached, it will happen. When inside of membrane is depolarized to +40mV, Na+ gates shut and K+ gates open. K+ rushes out trough open K+ gates (Na+ gates are closed and inactive). Membrane becomes re-polarized and may be hyperpolarized (overshoot). Refractory period occurs while Na+ gates of the Na+ channels remain closed. Membrane will not respond again until Na+ gates are active.
The ion currents in axons are greater than the currents in dendrites and the neural impulse known as spike propagates without decrement. This is because the ion channels in the axonal membrane are voltage gated and the current propagation is non-linear. In the myelinated axons the spike jumps from node to node of Ranvier (so called saltatory conduction). The myelin sheath is not permeable for ions (the ion leakage across the membrane is thus prevented) and indeed the sodium and potassium channels are clustered at the Ranvier nodes –
The ion currents in axons are greater than the currents in dendrites and the neural impulse known as spike propagates without decrement. This is because the ion channels in the axonal membrane are voltage gated and the current propagation is non-linear. In the myelinated axons the spike jumps from node to node of Ranvier (so called saltatory conduction). The myelin sheath is not permeable for ions (the ion leakage across the membrane is thus prevented) and indeed the sodium and potassium channels are clustered at the Ranvier nodes –
phenomenon that leads to increase of the conducting velocity!
phenomenon that leads to increase of the conducting velocity!
Higher stimulus intensity upon the nerve cell is reflected in increased frequency of impulses, not in higher voltages: all action potentials look essentially the same. The speed of propagation of the action potential for mammalian motor neurons is 10-120 m/s; while for nonmyelinated sensory neurons it's about 5-25 m/s (nonmyelinated neurons fire in a continuous fashion, without the jumps; ion leakage allows effectively complete circuits, but slows the rate of propagation).
Higher stimulus intensity upon the nerve cell is reflected in increased frequency of impulses, not in higher voltages: all action potentials look essentially the same. The speed of propagation of the action potential for mammalian motor neurons is 10-120 m/s; while for nonmyelinated sensory neurons it's about 5-25 m/s (nonmyelinated neurons fire in a continuous fashion, without the jumps; ion leakage allows effectively complete circuits, but slows the rate of propagation).
The Hodgkin-Huxley model
The Hodgkin-Huxley model
The current flow across the cell membrane depends on the capacitance of the membrane and the resistance of the ion channels. The total ionic current is represented by the sum of the sodium current, potassium current and a small leakage current. The leakage current represents the collective contribution of ions such as chloride and bicarbonate.
The current flow across the cell membrane depends on the capacitance of the membrane and the resistance of the ion channels. The total ionic current is represented by the sum of the sodium current, potassium current and a small leakage current. The leakage current represents the collective contribution of ions such as chloride and bicarbonate.
The Hodgkin-Huxley (HH) model is of an isopotential membrane patch or a single electrical compartment i.e. there are no spatial effects on the potential (Hodgkin & Huxley, 1952a; 1952b; 1952c). The units of the model are per membrane unit area, and it is then straightforward to scale the model to a single compartment of any desired membrane area.
The Hodgkin-Huxley (HH) model is of an isopotential membrane patch or a single electrical compartment i.e. there are no spatial effects on the potential (Hodgkin & Huxley, 1952a; 1952b; 1952c). The units of the model are per membrane unit area, and it is then straightforward to scale the model to a single compartment of any desired membrane area.
The total membrane current is the sum of the ionic currents and the capacitive current,
The total membrane current is the sum of the ionic currents and the capacitive current,
(79)
(79)
(80)
(80)
where
where
Im is the membrane current density,
Im is the membrane current density,
Iionic are the ionic currents
Iionic are the ionic currents
densities, CM is the membrane capacity per unit area and Vm is the membrane voltage. The two main ionic conductances, sodium and potassium are independent of each other, and a third, leak conductance does not depend on any of the other conductances or the membranal voltage. Thus, the total ionic current is the sum of the separate ionic currents. The individual ionic currents are linearly related to the potential according to Ohm's law,
densities, CM is the membrane capacity per unit area and Vm is the membrane voltage. The two main ionic conductances, sodium and potassium are independent of each other, and a third, leak conductance does not depend on any of the other conductances or the membranal voltage. Thus, the total ionic current is the sum of the separate ionic currents. The individual ionic currents are linearly related to the potential according to Ohm's law,
(81) IK (t) = GK (V, t)[V(t) - EK ]
(81) IK (t) = GK (V, t)[V(t) - EK ]
(82) INa(t) = GNa(V, t)[V(t) - ENa]
(82) INa(t) = GNa(V, t)[V(t) - ENa]
(83) IL(t) = GL(V, t)[V(t) - EL]
(83) IL(t) = GL(V, t)[V(t) - EL]
where GK, GNa and GL are the potassium, sodium and leak conductances per unit area of the membrane and EK, ENa and VL are the corresponding reversal or equilibrium potentials of each of the ionic species (the potential at which the ionic concentration gradient is balanced by the electrical potential gradient, and there is no net flux of the ions of this type).
where GK, GNa and GL are the potassium, sodium and leak conductances per unit area of the membrane and EK, ENa and VL are the corresponding reversal or equilibrium potentials of each of the ionic species (the potential at which the ionic concentration gradient is balanced by the electrical potential gradient, and there is no net flux of the ions of this type).
Magnetic field in axons
Magnetic field in axons
B will form closed loops around the axis of the neuronal projection and the direction will be defined by the right-handed screw rule (i.e. counterclockwise if the axial current flows toward your face). In axons the magnetic field is stronger than the magnetic field in dendrites because of the greater ion currents flowing inside the axoplasm. The nerve action potential has the form of a moving solitary wave, which can be modeled as two opposing current dipoles driven by a potential change of the order of 70 mV. The peak currents range from 5 to 10 µA (Katz, 1966). Axons range in diameter from less than 1 mm to 25 mm in humans, but reach gigantic size in squid ~1mm. Calculations of the magnetic flux density in the largest human axons that have the greatest electric currents give us:
B will form closed loops around the axis of the neuronal projection and the direction will be defined by the right-handed screw rule (i.e. counterclockwise if the axial current flows toward your face). In axons the magnetic field is stronger than the magnetic field in dendrites because of the greater ion currents flowing inside the axoplasm. The nerve action potential has the form of a moving solitary wave, which can be modeled as two opposing current dipoles driven by a potential change of the order of 70 mV. The peak currents range from 5 to 10 µA (Katz, 1966). Axons range in diameter from less than 1 mm to 25 mm in humans, but reach gigantic size in squid ~1mm. Calculations of the magnetic flux density in the largest human axons that have the greatest electric currents give us:
(88)
(88)
(89)
(89)
Although this result is 3 orders of magnitude greater than the experimentally measured magnetic field in frog sciatic nerve using SQUID magnetometer (Wikswo et al., 1980) it remains too weak - only 1/300 of the Earth’s magnetic field. The experimentally measured value for the magnetic field using SQUID magnetometer 1.3mm aside of the frog sciatic nerve was 1.2x10 –10 T with a signal-to-noise ratio 40 to 1 (Wikswo et al., 1980). The assessed value for the magnetic field strength at the nerve surface (where it has peak magnitude) using the Ampere’s law
Although this result is 3 orders of magnitude greater than the experimentally measured magnetic field in frog sciatic nerve using SQUID magnetometer (Wikswo et al., 1980) it remains too weak - only 1/300 of the Earth’s magnetic field. The experimentally measured value for the magnetic field using SQUID magnetometer 1.3mm aside of the frog sciatic nerve was 1.2x10 –10 T with a signal-to-noise ratio 40 to 1 (Wikswo et al., 1980). The assessed value for the magnetic field strength at the nerve surface (where it has peak magnitude) using the Ampere’s law
(90)
(90)
was 1.2x10 –10 tesla because of large frog sciatic the nerve diameter (d~0.6mm).
was 1.2x10 –10 tesla because of large frog sciatic the nerve diameter (d~0.6mm).
Electric field in axons
Electric field in axons
It would be naïve to expect extreme electric field intensities in the axon compared to the field intensity in dendrites. This is because the space constant l in axons is 1-2 orders of magnitude larger than the dendritic space constant and it is inversely linked to the electric field strength E = -ÑV . The electric field intensity could be approximated using the cable equation after assessing the space constant l for the axonal projection that increases with the diameter of the neuronal projection:
It would be naïve to expect extreme electric field intensities in the axon compared to the field intensity in dendrites. This is because the space constant l in axons is 1-2 orders of magnitude larger than the dendritic space constant and it is inversely linked to the electric field strength E = -ÑV . The electric field intensity could be approximated using the cable equation after assessing the space constant l for the axonal projection that increases with the diameter of the neuronal projection:
(91)
(91)
The applied voltage could vary from 70mV to 100mV (taking into account the overshoot of the action potential) so the electric intensity E could reach 10V/m.
The applied voltage could vary from 70mV to 100mV (taking into account the overshoot of the action potential) so the electric intensity E could reach 10V/m.
Neuhaus et al. (2003) note that axonal damage in multiple sclerosis appears to be initiated by increased membrane permeability followed by enhanced Ca2+-influx. Disruption of axonal transport alters the cytoskeleton and leads to axonal swelling, lobulation and, finally, disconnection. The drastic change of the electric microenvironment however could also directly lead to microtubule dysfunction.
Neuhaus et al. (2003) note that axonal damage in multiple sclerosis appears to be initiated by increased membrane permeability followed by enhanced Ca2+-influx. Disruption of axonal transport alters the cytoskeleton and leads to axonal swelling, lobulation and, finally, disconnection. The drastic change of the electric microenvironment however could also directly lead to microtubule dysfunction.
The local electric and magnetic field strengths were assessed to be varying from 0.01 V/m to 10 V/m for the electric intensity and from 10-10 to 10-7 T for the magnetic flux density. This rules out the possibility for the local magnetic field to input sensory information to tubulins. We have seen that if microtubules are intimately linked to our “consciousness” then they should have developed mechanisms for inputting the information carried by the local electric field.
The local electric and magnetic field strengths were assessed to be varying from 0.01 V/m to 10 V/m for the electric intensity and from 10-10 to 10-7 T for the magnetic flux density. This rules out the possibility for the local magnetic field to input sensory information to tubulins. We have seen that if microtubules are intimately linked to our “consciousness” then they should have developed mechanisms for inputting the information carried by the local electric field.
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Inventor: Diji N J
Inventor: Diji N J
Prajna Vaishnavi Shakti Research Consultancy
Prajna Vaishnavi Shakti Research Consultancy
Nedunghayil
Nedunghayil
Vennala P.O.
Vennala P.O.
Ernakulam
Ernakulam
Kerala
Kerala
India
India
Ph: +91-04844853025
Ph: +91-04844853025
Mobile: +91-7736419388
Mobile: +91-7736419388
Contact: delvezone@gmail.com
Contact: delvezone@gmail.com
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