The east-west trade routes between Greece and China began to open during the first and second centuries B.C. The Roman Empire and the Kushan Empire (which ruled territory in what is now northern India) also benefitted from the commerce created by the route along the Silk Road.
The international E-road network is a numbering system for roads in Europe developed by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). The network is numbered from E1 up and its roads cross national borders. It also reaches Central Asian countries like Kyrgyzstan, since they are members of the UNECE.
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In most countries, the roads carry the European route designation alongside national designations. Belgium, Norway and Sweden have roads which only have the European route designations (examples: E18 and E6). The United Kingdom, Albania and the Asian part of Russia only use national road designations and do not show the European designations at all. Andorra does not number its routes at all except in internal circumstances. Denmark only uses the European designations on signage, but also has formal names for every motorway (or part of such), by which the motorways are referred to, for instance in news and weather forecasts. In Asia, Turkey and Russia show the European designations on signage; this is not the case in many other Asian countries.
UNECE was formed in 1947, and their first major act to improve transport was a joint UN declaration no. 1264, the Declaration on the Construction of Main International Traffic Arteries,[1][2] signed in Geneva on 16 September 1950, which defined the first E-road network. Originally it was envisaged that the E-road network would be a motorway system comparable to the US Interstate Highway System.[3] The declaration was amended several times until 15 November 1975, when it was replaced by the European Agreement on Main International Traffic Arteries or "AGR",[4] which set up a route numbering system and improved standards for roads in the list. The AGR last went through a major change in 1992 and in 2001 was extended into Central Asia to include the Caucasus nations.[3] There were several minor revisions since, last in 2008 (as of 2009[update]).
Because the Socialist People's Republic of Albania refused to participate in international treaties such as the AGR, it was conspicuously excluded from the route scheme, with E65 and E90 making noticeable detours to go around it. In the 1990s, Albania opened up to the rest of Europe, but only ratified the AGR in August 2006, so its integration into the E-road network remains weak.
These requirements are meant to be followed for road construction. When new E-roads have been added these requirements have not been followed stringently. For example, the E45 in Sweden, added in 2006, has long parts with 6 m (20 ft) width or the E22 in eastern Europe forcing drivers to slow down to 30 km/h (20 mph) by taking the route through villages. In Norway, parts of the E10 are 5 m (16 ft) wide and in Central Asia even some gravel roads have been included.
In Belgium, for example, motorway E-numbers have taken on the same kind of persistent cultural integration and significance as M-numbers in the UK, or Interstate numbers in the United States. Local businesses will refer to, or even incorporate the road designator in their business name. The annual road cycling race "E3 Harelbeke" takes part of its name from the former E3 (the part between Antwerp and Lille was renamed E17 in 1992). The same applies to the retail chain "E5-mode" (E5-fashion) that started with shops easily accessible from the former E5 (renamed E40 in 1992).
The project covers upgrading and reconstruction of road sections of about 788.5 kilometers (km) in Kyzylorda oblast, excluding Kyzylorda bypass; upgrading and reconstruction of road sections of about 273.4 km in South Kazakhstan oblast from Kyzylorda oblast border to Shymkent, including the bypasses to Kyzylorda and Shymkent; project implementation management training for the Committee for Roads; institutional development and preparation of action plans to improve road safety and road services, including consulting services to review options for strengthening the Committee for Roads and improving the overall condition of the road network, road safety, and road services; and consulting services for supervision of civil works under the first and second components.
Ā Upgraded and reconstructed 788.5 km road sections in Kyzylorda oblast. Upgraded and reconstructed 273.4 km road sections in South Kazakhstan oblast from Kyzylorda oblast border to Shymkent. Strengthened project management capacity. Improved road safety and services. Increased supervisory capacity for civil works.
The environmental impact of transport in the EU may be linked, among other factors, to widespread ownership of motor vehicles, a large and increasing share of freight being transported by road, and the rapid growth (pre-pandemic) of air transport.
Much of the infrastructure is in ecologically sensitive areas or was built with weak environmental standards. Some projects have involved little or no consultation with affected communities, according to a report published last year by a team at the University of Cambridge, UK (see go.nature.com/3fsei8v). And although China says it stopped funding the construction of coal-fired power plants abroad in 2022, emissions from fossil-fuel-powered plants that it has already built add the equivalent of 245 million tonnes of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere every year.
At the same time, China is motivated to boost global economic links to its western regions, which historically have been neglected. Promoting economic development in the western province of Xinjiang, where separatist violence has been on the upswing, is a major priority, as is securing long-term energy supplies from Central Asia and the Middle East, especially via routes the U.S. military cannot disrupt.
More broadly, Chinese leaders are determined to restructure the economy to avoid the so-called middle-income trap. In this scenario, which has plagued close to 90 percent of middle-income countries since 1960, wages go up and quality of life improves as low-skilled manufacturing rises, but countries struggle to then shift to producing higher-value goods and services.
Other skeptics connect the BRI with climate change. Though China committed to stop building coal-fired power plants abroad in 2021, nonrenewable energy investment has made up nearly half of all BRI spending; ambiguity remains about whether the commitment applies to projects already in progress or only to new projects, and if it restricts coal-fired power plant financing in addition to construction.
Life is but a dream in Ireland, whether you down a pint of Guinness and trace tales told by James Joyce in Dublin, or careen along the Cliffs of Moher along the west coast. Many cruises to Europe also stop in Northern Ireland's Belfast, a city that's a testament to rebirth and reconciliation.
Norway is a country in beautiful balance. Had enough of the orderliness of Oslo? Head west to beautiful Bergen, where finger-shaped fjords jut into and out of thousands of miles of coastline. Or contrast a fresh fish dinner at sea level with the view from towering Trolltunga cliff.
Adventurer Sean Conway will next week set out on an attempt to set a new Guinness World Record for the fastest unsupported crossing of Europe by bike from west to east, a distance of 4,500 miles that he hopes to complete in less than 25 days.
The guy who has done my bike fitting in Otley is attempting the reverse record, started last week, though he's sleeping in actual beds. He's currently in Latvia making decent progress though roads in Russia looked pretty ropey. He had 9 punctures yeseterday I think, so that disc rear wheel might struggle!
China has invested tens of billions of dollars in Europe under its Belt and Road Initiative, or BRI, which is marking its 10th birthday this month. While the funds have helped with the construction of new roads, railways and port facilities, there is concern about debt payments in some European countries. At the same time, a decade into the project, there is a growing trend of blocking Beijing's acquisition of key strategic assets amid a Western push to reduce dependence on China.
The Silk Road was a network of ancient trade routes, formally established during the Han Dynasty of China in 130 BCE, which linked the regions of the ancient world in commerce between 130 BCE-1453 CE. The Silk Road was not a single route from east to west and so historians favor the name 'Silk Routes', though 'Silk Road' is commonly used.
The European explorer Marco Polo (l.1254-1324 CE) traveled on these routes and described them in depth in his famous work but he is not credited with naming them. Both terms for this network of roads - Silk Road and Silk Routes - were coined by the German geographer and traveler, Ferdinand von Richthofen, in 1877 CE, who designated them 'Seidenstrasse' (silk road) or 'Seidenstrassen' (silk routes). Polo, and later von Richthofen, make mention of the goods which were transported back and forth on the Silk Road.
The network was used regularly from 130 BCE, when the Han Dynasty (202 BCE - 220 CE) officially opened trade with the west, to 1453 CE, when the Ottoman Empire boycotted trade with the west and closed the routes. By this time, Europeans had become used to the goods from the east and, when the Silk Road closed, merchants needed to find new trade routes to meet the demand for these goods.
The closure of the Silk Road initiated the Age of Discovery (also known as the Age of Exploration, 1453-1660 CE) which would be defined by European explorers taking to the sea and charting new water routes to replace over-land trade. The Age of Discovery would impact cultures around the world as European ships claimed some lands in the name of their god and country and influenced others by introducing western culture and religion and, at the same time, these other nations influenced European cultural traditions. The Silk Road - from its opening to its closure - had so great an impact on the development of world civilization that it is difficult to imagine the modern world without it. be457b7860
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