Embedded Files
Author: Gretchen Uhrinek
Master Plan Statement
Master Plan Statement
Fostering a holistic approach to conservation by combining ecological research with community engagement to address the impacts of mining-induced habitat destruction in the Appalachian region.
Fostering a holistic approach to conservation by combining ecological research with community engagement to address the impacts of mining-induced habitat destruction in the Appalachian region.
Institution: Miami University
Program: Project Dragonfly's Advanced Inquiry Program
Host zoo: Cleveland Metroparks Zoo
Degree: Master of Arts in Biology
Graduation: December 2024
Keywords: Appalachia, conservation, restoration, reclamation, remediation, acid mine drainage, environmental justice, stewardship, community engagement, outdoor recreation
Author's note: Throughout this portfolio, certain terms are formatted in bold. Please see Appendix A for operational definitions that correspond to these terms.
Introduction
Introduction
It was one year into the global COVID-19 pandemic and I was restless. Neighborhood squirrels were my primary friend group and I had become increasingly fixated on a story about two eccentric Russians who wanted to bring back wooly mammoths so they could restore the Arctic’s permafrost (Wrigley, 2020). I thought about quitting my copyediting job to help them; I thought about how hard it would be to learn Russian and decided against it. Instead, I applied for Miami University’s Project Dragonfly graduate program and considered the roots of my fascination: why did I care about restoration so much in the first place?
Orange streams came to mind. Barren hillocks of jagged mine waste. Worrisome mallards buoyant and bobbing on waters too polluted for words. These scenes from my childhood—from my father’s childhood, from my grandparents’ childhoods—are the same today as they were nearly a hundred years ago. Pennsylvania, my home, has more abandoned coal mines than any other state in the country, with over 250,000 acres in need of reclamation (PA DEP, 2024). Appalachia as a whole contains over 633,000 acres of unreclaimed mine land (Appalachian Voices, 2021). From deforestation to acid mine drainage (AMD), decreased biodiversity, and increased human mortality, the effects of mining can be devastating (Wickham et al., 2013; Ross et al, 2016; Simonin et al., 2021; Hendryx and Ahern, 2009). Even decades after reclamation, mines contribute to water quality degradation (Lindberg et al., 2011). Long-term reforestation outlooks are equally bleak (Thomas et al., 2022).
That shouldn't be the case. The Appalachian mountains are one of the oldest ranges on Earth and host exceptional biodiversity; current species proximations estimate some 255 birds, 78 mammals, 58 reptiles, 76 amphibians, 400 fish, and well over 6,000 plants can be found among its hills and hollers (Pickering et al., 2002; Zipper and Skousen, 2021; Conservation Fisheries, n.d.). It’s also home to over 25.7 million humans (ARC, n.d.), many of whom face profound daily hardships. For better or for worse, the mining industry is no longer the major economic force that it used to be. As the industry leaves Appalachia, what’s left in its wake is a region in need—of community, of voice, and of support.
Many parts of Appalachia are referred to as “energy sacrifice zones,” areas exposed to high levels of pollution and environmental degradation as a result of energy production (Scanlan, 2013). I firmly believe that these communities deserve environmental justice. As the world transitions to renewable energy and the call for coal declines, these communities will face a reckoning: on one hand, picking up the pieces; on the other, finding new economic opportunities. As part of my master plan’s community leadership challenge, I sought to combine ecological stewardship with outdoor recreation, as both will likely play a vital role in Appalachia’s future.
At its core, my master plan explores the intersection of ecological restoration and community engagement to address the impacts of mining in the Appalachian region. My goal is to understand the science behind this issue and foster local conservation values. Since I began this journey, I’ve worked on projects related to hydrology, conservation, bioremediation, habitat restoration, evolutionary hybridization, and community stewardship, all of which are described in greater detail below.
I used to think restoration was a thing that only happened in far-off places. Now, I understand it’s a project far closer to home.
Figure 1. Infographic created in 2022 during Miami University's Biology in the Age of Technology graduate course. (Source: Gretchen Uhrinek)
Section 1: Mining—Habitat Impacts
Section 1: Mining—Habitat Impacts
Flora and fauna don’t exist in a vacuum. To protect a species, one must first learn about its habitat—or lack thereof. In the following projects, I sought to learn more about the ecological effects of mining-induced habitat destruction in Appalachia.
Evolution and Hybridization of North American Flying Squirrels (Synthesis Paper)
Evolution and Hybridization of North American Flying Squirrels (Synthesis Paper)
As mentioned in my introduction, squirrels were a big part of my life when I applied for graduate school. During Miami University’s Issues in Evolution course (BIO 634), I was introduced to the concept of sympatric hybridization—when two populations of distinct species share a space, mate, and produce offspring together. I learned that two species of North American flying squirrels had recently experienced sympatry and one of the primary causes appeared to be habitat destruction in Appalachia. With 7.1% of central Appalachian habitat having been compromised by surface mining since 1976—an area 18% larger than the state of Delaware (Pericak et al., 2018)—I couldn’t have picked a paper topic faster.
This paper synthesized scientific literature related to the evolution of the Northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus) and the Southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans), as well as sympatric hybridization between the two. It also explored the potential outcomes for these species. Northern flying squirrels are endangered in Pennsylvania, a hotspot for interspecies squirrel mingling, and the relatively new appearance of Southern flying squirrels in their range has played a key role in the species’s decline. Without a strong scientific background, I was challenged to learn about evolution, speciation, and genetics; luckily, a deep-rooted love for squirrels helped fuel the process.
While the learning experience of writing this synthesis paper was positive in and of itself, a greater outcome is that my research helped me write an article for Northern Woodlands Magazine. This was my first piece of published environmental writing, and the story was later picked up and syndicated by over a dozen newspapers across New England. Having entered graduate school with the goal of transitioning into a career writing about the environment, this was huge. It gave me a burst of confidence and reassured me that I was heading in the right direction.
Figure 2. Custom illustration created for my article in Northern Woodlands Magazine. (Artist: Adelaide Tyrol)
Figure 3. Flying squirrel (Pteromyini) phylogenetic tree. (Adapted from Thorington et al., 2002)
Hydrological Effects of Surface Mining in Appalachia (Literature Review)
Hydrological Effects of Surface Mining in Appalachia (Literature Review)
If unreclaimed mines had a signature, it would be written in orange—AMD's ubiquitous tint marking the presence of dissolved iron particles and sulfuric acid (Ayangbenro et al., 2018). In Pennsylvania, over 5,500 miles of streams have impaired water quality from AMD (Lenahan, 2022) and about 2.4 million people live in a community that contains a stream impacted by AMD (Black and Weber, 2024). In this literature review, I synthesized pre-existing research on the environmental effects of surface mining, specifically in relation to hydrology, water quality, and aquatic biodiversity.
At this point in my graduate journey, I’d decided that I wanted my master plan to focus on the effects of mining in Appalachia. Having grown up in the Appalachian foothills around AMD-impacted streams, I felt compelled to do a literature review on the topic. I knew, firsthand, how nothing seemed to live in those waters—but why? What made them so toxic, so orange? Were AMD-impacted streams really as desolate as they seemed? I had so many questions. And so I read. And I read some more. By the end of this seven-page literature review, I’d cited 34 sources, including 14 peer-reviewed journal articles and two books, which I read cover to cover.
In my reading and writing, I began to understand the prodigious scale of mining’s environmental impact across the Appalachian region. I learned about the history of extractive resource use in Appalachia, all the way back to its timber days. I learned how the region’s “seasonal mosaic of habitat types” of ephemeral and intermittent headwater streams supported unique aquatic and semi-aquatic species, and how over 1,200 miles of such streams have been buried by mining fill in central Appalachia alone (Bernhardt and Palmer, 2011). I learned about salamanders, crayfish, and brook trout. I learned about government policies, which were frustrating. I learned about reclamation and remediation strategies, which were inspiring. I learned that I can never learn enough, and that my journey into this topic had only just begun.
Figure 4. Appalachia is home to 58 species of reptiles, 76 species of amphibians, and 400 species of fish. Shown: Blue-spotted salamander (Ambystoma laterale), big sandy crayfish (Cambarus callainus), and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). (All photos: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services)
Figure 5. Time-lapse satellite map of mountaintop removal mining in West Virginia and Kentucky. Use the scroll bars to experience the full scale. (Source: SkyTruth)
Section 2: Reclamation—Brighter Futures
Section 2: Reclamation—Brighter Futures
It’s easy to get stuck in a morass of negativity when discussing environmental destruction. However, studies show that positive framing begets positive change (Dasandi et al., 2022; Peters et al., 2022; Cvitanovic and Hobday, 2018). Where mining is concerned, reclamation and remediation offer a beacon of hope. In the following projects, I honored positivity and explored bioremediation at a high level, mycoremediation in particular, and whether or not it’s possible to grow art from abandoned piles of mine refuse.
Bioremediation of Acid Mine Drainage (Google Site)
Bioremediation of Acid Mine Drainage (Google Site)
After conducting my literature review on the hydrological effects of surface mining in Appalachia, I wanted to turn my focus to solutions instead of problems. During Miami University’s Biology in the Age of Technology course (BIO 632), I created a Google Site that explored bioremediation of AMD. At its core, bioremediation is the process of healing nature with nature. As Janine Benyus wrote in her seminal book Biomimicry (2002), “Nature has had 3.8 billion years to perfect the art of living. So why not just ask nature directly how to solve our most pressing problems?”
There are myriad types of bioremediation, several of which are detailed in my Google Site. During this project, I learned that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to bioremediation. For instance, wetlands are the most common and affordable treatment option for AMD, but they don’t work in dry climates or places where water levels frequently change. In those areas, other tactics such as introducing sulfate-reducing bacteria might be used instead. I was unfamiliar with most of these strategies before building my Google Site, so it was a valuable lesson in inquiry to compare several bioremediation tactics and create lists of pros and cons for each.
Building a website was hard, but it was well worth the effort. By incorporating multimedia elements, such as a time-lapse satellite map of mountaintop removal mining in central Appalachia, I was able to effectively share vital information about mining’s impact and bioremediation’s potential to solve the ongoing problem of AMD. It also helped me understand the information I’d already written about in past literature reviews on a much deeper level. Finally, and best of all, it opened my eyes to the concept of mycoremediation, which became the focus of my next inquiry project.
Figure 6. AMD in Jack's Run creek, Carbon, Pennsylvania. This site was abandoned in 1936 and discharges 1,100 gallons of AMD per minute. (Source: Gretchen Uhrinek)
Figure 7. Wetlands are the most common and least expensive treatment option for AMD. The wetland shown here has been used to treat AMD in Boyers, Pennsylvania, for over three decades. (Source: Gretchen Uhrinek)
Mycoremediation and Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): Proximity to AMD May Affect Wild Mushroom Diversity (Inquiry Project)
Mycoremediation and Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): Proximity to AMD May Affect Wild Mushroom Diversity (Inquiry Project)
I work a desk job and aside from monthly in-person experiential learning days at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, much of my work as a Project Dragonfly student took place in an ergonomic office chair. But after I was introduced to the concept of mycoremediation—using fungi to clean up pollution—I knew it was time to get my hands dirty. Mushrooms are one of the few things that can survive in or very near AMD. Due to their high capacity for metal accumulation through the process of biosorption, a person could theoretically grow mushrooms in spaces with high metal concentrations, process the fruiting bodies to separate the mushroom from the metal, and then resell the recovered metals and minerals (Cecci et al., 2017; Kulshreshtha et al., 2014). Even when metal or mineral recovery is not the intended goal, mycoremediation is a valuable tool for removing environmental pollution through biodegradation, the process by which mushroom enzymes degrade the complex molecules of toxic pollutants down to basic mineral compounds (Kulshreshtha et al., 2014). I find mushrooms fascinating, so as an inquiry project, I decided to explore how proximity to AMD may influence their diversity in the wild.
In Pittsburgh, a former coal mine has been turned into a conservation area called Wingfield Pines. Wingfield Pines hosts five passive AMD treatment ponds, each of which progressively filters polluted water until it’s finally released, clean, into a nearby creek. This setup was perfect for my inquiry project. To determine how proximity to AMD is affecting native mushroom diversity and abundance at Wingfield Pines, I conducted three population surveys around each treatment pond over the span of two months. Since mushrooms can be difficult to identify, species were confirmed through multiple means: first, by processing photos through a mushroom identification phone app; second, by comparing against a mushroom identification book; and third—as a case-by-case measure for the particularly elusive—by taking spore prints. Overall, 17 species were identified: ten near the most polluted pond, five near the second-most polluted pond, and two near the second-least polluted pond. This signified a positive correlation between a soil’s pollution vis-à-vis AMD and wild mushroom diversity, a result I found both unexpected and exciting.
This was my first time conducting field work and I loved every moment. Not only did this project scratch my inquiry itch, but it helped me learn more about mushroom identification and deepened my local ecological understanding. Yes, one of my surveys was conducted in a cold rain. Sure, I invariably came home covered in ticks. Of course, my hair got caught in thorns after crawling under a bush to snap photos of deadly fungi. Every bit was a delight. As an aspiring environmental writer, I hope to someday accompany scientists as they conduct their own field research and write about the experience; this project was a satisfying glimpse into what that might look like.
Figure 8. pH and moisture level test devices at a sample site, a view from the banks of Wingfield Pines AMD treatment pond #2, and a mushroom spore print. (Source: Gretchen Uhrinek)
Figure 9. Data summary from three mushroom surveys conducted at Wingfield Pines. (Source: Gretchen Uhrinek)
Exploring the Viability of Using Mine Waste as a Native Pigment Garden (Inquiry Project)
Exploring the Viability of Using Mine Waste as a Native Pigment Garden (Inquiry Project)
With this inquiry project, I explored the potential of using mine waste as a growing substrate for a pigment garden. According to the U.S. Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (n.d.), mine waste—aka coal refuse or garbage of bituminous (gob)—is “a pile of loose waste, coal, and other minerals extracted from a mine that are not marketable.” There are 820 abandoned gob piles in Pennsylvania, covering over 8,500 acres (Dalberto et al., 2004). Gob piles are pervasive across my home region of southwestern Pennsylvania, which was once known for its abundant caches of high-quality bituminous coal. However, gob piles are rife with potentially hazardous elements; sometimes, they even spontaneously combust (Zhao et al., 2008). I've long wondered if it's possible to coax life out of those desolate black hills, so for this project I asked: how well will seeds germinate in this mess? But not just any seeds; I specifically wanted to explore the potential of growing native plants that were historically used by Indigenous groups to create natural pigments and dyes.
To answer this question, I picked three native plant species—wild blue indigo (Baptisia australis), Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans), and red yarrow (Achillea millefolium rubra)—and planted 18 seeds of each in three types of soil. The first type of soil, the experiment’s control group, was an organic seed-starting mix; the second was a 50:50 ratio of seed-starting mix and mine waste; the third was pure mine waste. I monitored temperature, light, and moisture and tracked germination rates over a span of 15 days. In the end, combining all three species, I recorded a 44% germination success rate with the control group, 48% success rate for the mixed soil, and a 26% success rate for the mined soil.
These results were not entirely unexpected. There’s a reason why most abandoned gob piles are devoid of vegetation, even after decades of natural seed dispersal. That being said, hope remains. For instance, at its peak, red yarrow had a 33% germination success rate in mined soil and a 94% success rate in mixed soil, and wild blue indigo grew best in mixed soil by a large margin compared to the other two types (skewing my overall results). I plan to continue exploring this line of research after graduation. My goal is to grow a native dye/pigment garden on gob so that I can lead future art workshops featuring mine-sourced materials as a means of discussing conservation across Appalachia.
Figure 10. Slide deck from an in-person presentation I gave at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo regarding this project. (Source: Gretchen Uhrinek)
Figure 11. My father, shown here, grew up playing on this gob pile in Carbon, Pennsylvania. The mine waste at this site has been abandoned since 1936. Note that very little vegetation has taken root, despite nearly a century of natural seed dispersal through wind and bird waste. (Source: Gretchen Uhrinek)
Section 3: Leadership—Recreation Over Resource Extraction
Section 3: Leadership—Recreation Over Resource Extraction
As mentioned in my introduction, as the region’s coal mining activity tails off, outdoor recreation will likely play a major role in Appalachia’s economic future. Outdoor recreation and environmental stewardship often go hand in hand; studies have noted that outdoor adventures can deepen place connectedness and foster a sense of duty to protect and preserve (Miller et al., 2020; Schwass et al., 2021). As a graduate student, hiker, and rock climber, I decided to use my leadership challenges to promote sustainable outdoor recreation in Pittsburgh, the Paris of Appalachia.
Sustainability and Stewardship in Pittsburgh's Rock Climbing Community (Community Leadership Challenge)
Sustainability and Stewardship in Pittsburgh's Rock Climbing Community (Community Leadership Challenge)
In 2021, I launched Sustainability Club through my local rock climbing gym in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. My vision was to create a network of like-minded individuals with a shared passion for climbing and deep respect for the natural world. As climbing grows in popularity—according to Climbing Business Journal (2024), the U.S. and Canada were home to 785 climbing gyms at the end of 2023, a 60.5% increase since 2013—there has never been a more crucial time to connect with the climbing community and emphasize the importance of environmental stewardship. Plenty of climbers get their start in the gym and eventually transition to outdoor climbing; for the greater Pittsburgh climbing community, this almost always means a trip to Appalachia’s crags. Indeed, some of America’s best-known outdoor climbing areas are in Appalachia, like the New River Gorge in West Virginia and the Red River Gorge in Kentucky, not to mention the many lesser-known but much-beloved mountain crags situated within two hours of the city.
Sustainability Club’s official mission statement reads: “To make the world a better place through environmental stewardship, community engagement, and the promotion of sustainable practices on and off the wall.” But what does that actually mean? Since the club’s formation, we’ve put in over 100 collective work hours building trails, cleaning litter, and removing invasive plants around the greater Pittsburgh region. We’ve collected hundreds of pairs of old climbing shoes so the rubber soles can be downcycled. We’ve hosted plant swaps, shared native wildflower seeds, and planted trees. We’ve read Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring and shared valuable information through social media. We’ve also gone climbing—of course we’ve gone climbing!—indoors and out. Our monthly gym climbing sessions have fostered an incredible sense of community; at least 50 individuals have attended at one time or another, with many returning every month. Some people have made lifelong friends; others have built a professional network of sustainability advocates. Two people even met and fell in love. Sustainability Club has been such a success that we now have a second faction based in Erie, Pennsylvania.
The hardest part of this experience came from within: I'm secretly a huge introvert. As much as I love meeting people, building a community, and watching relationships flourish—to say nothing of the club’s positive environmental impact—I prefer the company of my dog. The truth is that leadership was awful for me at the beginning. Really: I had full-blown anxiety attacks in my car before our first few club climbs. I’ve always been very good at organizing and planning, but being decisive? Being confident? Not so much. Luckily, over the years, I’ve grown much more self-assured. I can now speak loudly and with authority in front of a group of strangers. Sometimes I even make them laugh. I’m incredibly fortunate to be part of such a friendly community and I can’t wait to keep growing along with this club long after I earn my degree.
Figure 12. Some Sustainability Club event posts shared through Instagram. (Source: Gretchen Uhrinek)
Figure 13. Bags of trash club members collected from a local outdoor climbing area. (Source: Gretchen Uhrinek)
Sometimes, It Takes a Herd (Authorship Leadership Challenge)
Sometimes, It Takes a Herd (Authorship Leadership Challenge)
As one of our volunteer events, in September 2023, Sustainability Club partnered with the local non-profit Allegheny Goatscape to help remove invasive bush honeysuckle from Pittsburgh’s newest greenspace, a sprawling urban wilderness called Hays Woods. As volunteers, we cut back the tallest vines so Allegheny Goatscape’s herd of goats (and miniature donkey) could devour the roughage. This experience was so positive that I ended up writing about it for Red Canary Magazine, an award-winning publication focused on difference-making environmental and social journalism.
This article focused on three things. First, it explained how Pittsburgh’s history of coal mining has disrupted the land, thus making it easy for invasive plants to run amok. Second, it talked about the important role of community engagement in ecological restoration, with a special focus on Sustainability Club’s work. Finally, and primarily, it discussed goats. Why do goats make people happy? Why are they so good at removing invasive plants? What are some goatscaping success stories outside of Pittsburgh? I sought to answer these questions and more through interviews, webinars, peer-reviewed papers, and firsthand experiences, which appear throughout the published piece.
I loved writing this. Not only did this article earn my most impressive byline to date, but it helped me build a relationship with one of my favorite Pittsburgh-based environmental non-profits. This article also deepened my understanding of local ecology and restoration efforts. Best of all, I got muddy ridding the woods of invasive plants with some goats—an amazing experience everyone should try at least once.
Figure 14. Goats have a unique digestive system that renders most seeds unviable after consumption and defecation, making them perfect little helpers when it comes to sustainably eradicating invasive plants. (Source: Gretchen Uhrinek)
Conclusion
Conclusion
My master’s journey has been an evolving exploration into the worlds of conservation, community, and leadership—not at all what I expected when I first enrolled in Project Dragonfly, but exactly what I needed in the end. As in all things, some parts were easier than others. My background in writing and sociology proved invaluable for developing literature reviews and synthesis papers. Although my scientific background was virtually non-existent before this program, I found that passion can turn the labor of learning into a process of joy—and as I hope has become clear, I am deeply passionate about addressing the impacts of mining across Appalachia. In truth, overcoming my social anxiety was the biggest challenge. Luckily, I’ve connected with some remarkable people and organizations along the way. Now I live a life rich with friendship and regular group volunteerism, all because this program forced me out of my shell to engage with my community.
This experience has also helped me grow as a professional. My graduate coursework inspired two pieces of published environmental writing and, more importantly, it helped me lead with confidence. As a woman, this is no small thing. Studies have shown that men are over-represented in positions of leadership; that same gender inequity exists throughout both the conservation and science journalism fields (James et al., 2023; Tomasik and Gottfried, 2023). Additionally, if I am to build trust with the Appalachian communities I hope to serve in the future, I need to demonstrate integrity, reliability, and authenticity (Lansing et al., 2023). Confidence in myself will help me instill confidence, and therefore trust, in others.
As this experience draws to a close, it’s time to look ahead. My post-graduation plan is to pursue environmental writing in earnest; my hope is that mentioning a Master of Arts in Biology will lend credence to any article pitches in that regard. I intend to continue learning about Appalachia, its ecology and its people, and explore more ways to better serve this region I call home. And if I can someday afford to buy a plot of unreclaimed mine land and bring it back to life—well, wouldn’t that be something?
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments
None of this would have been possible without the support of my community. I am grateful for the classmates and facilitators at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo who helped transform this writer into something of a scientist. Additional thanks goes to ASCEND Climbing Gym for making Sustainability Club possible. Finally, and most importantly, thank you to all of the people who watched my dog when I had to go to Cleveland. Sunny and I appreciate you.
Literature Cited
Literature Cited
From the Introduction
From the Introduction
Appalachian Voices. (2021). Mountaintop removal 101. https://appvoices.org/end-mountaintop-removal/mtr101/
ARC. (n.d.). Population and age in Appalachia. Appalachian Regional Commission. https://www.arc.gov/appalachias-population/
Conservation Fisheries. (n.d.). Southern Appalachia: Pinnacle of aquatic biodiversity. https://www.conservationfisheries.org/appalachia
Hendryx, M. and Ahern, M.M. (2009). Mortality in Appalachian coal mining regions: The value of statistical life lost. Public Health Reports, 124(4), 541–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/003335490912400411
Lindberg, T.T., Bernhardt, E.S., Bier, R., Helton, A.M., Merola, R.B., Vengosh, A., and Di Giulio, R.T. (2011). Cumulative impacts of mountaintop mining on an Appalachian watershed. Biological Sciences, 108(52), 20929–20934. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1112381108
PA DEP. (2024). PA's mining legacy and AML. Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection. https://www.dep.pa.gov/Business/Land/Mining/AbandonedMineReclamation/AMLProgramInformation/Pages/PA's-Mining-Legacy-and-AML.aspx
Pickering, J., Kays, R., Meier, A., Andrew, S., and Yatskievych, K. (2002). The Appalachians. In P.R. Gil, R.A. Mittermeier, C.G. Mittermeier, J. Pilgrim, G. Fonseca, W.R. Konstant, and T. Brooks (Eds.), Wilderness - Earth’s Last Wild Places (pp. 458–467). Conservation International. https://www.discoverlife.org/co/
Ross, M.R.V., McGlynn, B.L., and Bernhardt, E.S. (2016). Deep impact: Effects of mountaintop mining on surface topography, bedrock structure, and downstream waters. Environmental Science and Technology, 50, 2064–2074. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b04532
Scanlan, S.J. (2013). The theoretical roots and sociology of environmental justice in Appalachia. In M. Morrone, G.L. Buckley, D.E. Davis, and J. Purdy (Eds.), Mountains of Injustice (pp. 3–31). Ohio University Press.
Simonin, M., Rocca, J.D., Gerson, J.R., Moore, E., Brooks, A.C., Czaplicki, L., Ross, M.R.V., Fierer, N., Craine, J.M., and Bernhardt, E.S. (2021). Consistent declines in squatic biodiversity across diverse domains of life in rivers impacted by surface coal mining. Ecological Applications, 31(6), e02389. https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.2389
Thomas, C.J., Shriver, R.K., Nippgen, F., Hepler, M, and Ross, M.R.V. (2022). Mines to forests? Analyzing long-term recovery trends for surface coal mines in Central Appalachia. Restoration Ecology, 31(5), e13827. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13827
Wickham, J., Wood, P.B., Nicholson, M.C., Jenkins, W., Druckenbrod, D., Suter, G.W., Strager, M.P., Mazzarella, C., Galloway, W., and Amos, J. (2013). The overlooked terrestrial impacts of mountaintop mining. BioScience, 63(5), 335–348. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2013.63.5.7
Zipper, C. and Skousen, J. (2021). Coal’s legacy in Appalachia: Lands, waters, and people. The Extractive Industries and Society, 8(4), 100990. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2021.100990
Bracketed citations featured in the infographic:
[1] Funes, Y. (2018). Coal mining has destroyed 1.5 million acres of Appalachian forest. Gizmodo. https://gizmodo.com/coal-mining-has-destroyed-1-5-million-acres-of-appalach-1827892712
[2] AMRClearinghouse. (n.d.). The problem. Abandoned Mine Reclamation Clearinghouse. http://amrclearinghouse.org/Sub/Main/TheProblem.htm
[3] Appalachian Voices. (n.d.). Ecological impacts of mountaintop removal. Appalachian Voices. https://appvoices.org/end-mountaintop-removal/mtr101/ecology/
[4] AV's intern team. (2021). A new wave of abandoned coal mines? Appalachian Voices. https://appvoices.org/2021/08/04/a-new-wave-of-abandoned-coal-mines/
[5] AV's intern team. (2021). A new wave of abandoned coal mines? Appalachian Voices. https://appvoices.org/2021/08/04/a-new-wave-of-abandoned-coal-mines/
[6] EIA. (2024). Coal explained: Coal and the environment. U.S. Energy Information Administration. https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/coal/coal-and-the-environment.php
[7] EIA. (2024). U.S. energy facts explained. U.S. Energy Information Administration. https://eia.gov/energyexplained/us-energy-facts/
[8] EIA. (2024). U.S. energy facts explained. U.S. Energy Information Administration. https://eia.gov/energyexplained/us-energy-facts/
[9] ARC. (n.d.). Population and age in Appalachia. Appalachian Regional Commission. https://www.arc.gov/about-the-appalachian-region/the-chartbook/appalachias-population/
[10] Statista. (2024). Coal-mining employment in the Appalachian region from 2010 to 2023, by mine type. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/215789/coal-mining-employment-in-the-appalachian-region-by-mine-type/
From Section 1
From Section 1
Ayangbenro, A.S., Olanrewaju, O.S., and Bablola, O.O. (2018). Sulfate-reducing bacteria as an effective tool for sustainable acid mine bioremediation. Frontiers in Microbiology, 9, 1986. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.01986
Bernhardt, E.S. and Palmer, M.A. (2011). The environmental costs of mountaintop mining valley fill operations for aquatic ecosystems of the Central Appalachians. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1223. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.05986.x
Black, J.J. and Weber, J.G. (2024). Treating abandoned mine drainage can protect streams cost effectively and benefit vulnerable communities. Communications Earth & Environment, 5, 508. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01669-0
Lenahan, G. (2022). Acid mine drainage treatment facilities: Reversing hundreds of years of pollution to bring Pennsylvania's streams and rivers back to life. Our Common Wealth. https://www.dep.pa.gov/OurCommonWealth/pages/Article.aspx?post=92
Pericak, A.A., Thomas, C.J., Kroodsma, D.A., Wasson, M.F., Ross, M.R.V., Clinton, N.E., Campagna, D.J., Franklin, Y., Bernhardt, E.S., and Amos, J.F. (2018). Mapping the yearly extent of surface coal mining in Central Appalachia using Landsat and Google Earth Engine. PLoS One, 13(7), e0197758. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197758
Thorington, R.W. Jr., Pitassy, D., and Jansa, S.A. (2002). Phylogenies of flying squirrels (Pteromyinae). Journal of Mammalian Evolution, 9, 99–135. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021335912016
From Section 2
From Section 2
Benyus, J.M. (2002). Chapter 1: Echoing nature. Biomimicry: Innovation inspired by nature. HarperCollins Publishers.
Cecchi, G., Marescotti, P., Di Piazza, S., and Zotti, M. (2017). Native fungi as metal remediations: Silver myco-accumulation from metal contaminated waste-rock dumps (Libiola Mine, Italy). Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B, 52(3), 191–195.
Cvitanovic, C. and Hobday, A.J. (2018). Building optimism at the environmental science-policy practice interface through the study of bright spots. Nature Communications, 9, 3466. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-05977-w
Dalberto, A.D., Scheetz, B.E., Hornberger, R.J., Kania, T.C., Menghini, M.J., and Walters, S.E. (2004). Chapter 1: Overview: Coal ash beneficial use and mine land reclamation. In Coal Ash Beneficial Use in Mine Reclamation and Mine Drainage Remediation in Pennsylvania (pp. 1–19). https://files.dep.state.pa.us/Mining/District%20Mining/DistrictMinePortalFiles/Beneficial_Use/09_CHAPT_1/Chapter_1_final.pdf
Dasandi, N., Graham, H., Hudson, D., Jankin, S., vanHeerde-Hudson, J., and Watts, N. (2022). Positive, global, and health or environment framing bolsters public support for climate policies. Communications Earth & Environment, 3, 239. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00571-x
Kulshreshtha, S., Mathur, N., and Bhatnagar, P. (2014). Mushroom as a product and their role in mycoremediation. AMB Express, 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13568-014-0029-8
Peters, E., Boyd, P., Cameron, L.D., Contractor, N., Diefenbach, M.A., Fleszar-Pavlovic, S., Markowitz, E., Salas, R.N., and Stephens, K.K. (2022). Evidence-based recommendations for communicating the impacts of climate change on health. Translational Behavioral Medicine, 12(4), 543–553. https://doi.org/10.1093/tbm/ibac029
U.S. Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement. Glossary. U.S. Department of the Interior. https://www.osmre.gov/resources/glossary
Zhao, Y., Zhang, J., Chou, C.-L., Li, Y., Wang, Z., Ge, Y., and Zheng, C. (2008). Trace element emissions from spontaneous combustion of gob piles in coal mines, Shanxi, China. International Journal of Coal Geology, 73(1), 52–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2007.07.007
From Section 3
From Section 3
Climbing Business Journal. (2024). Gyms and trends 2023. Climbing Business Journal. https://climbingbusinessjournal.com/gyms-and-trends-2023/
Miller, A.B., Larson, L.R., Wimpey, J., and Reigner, N. (2020). Chapter 16: Outdoor recreation and environmental stewardship: The sustainable symbiosis. In S. Selin, L.K. Cerveny, D.J. Blahna, and A.B. Miller (Eds.), Igniting Research for Outdoor Recreation: Linking Science, Policy, and Action. U.S. Forest Service. https://www.fs.usda.gov/pnw/pubs/pnw_gtr987_Selin_Chap16.pdf
Schwass, N.R., Potter, S.E., O’Connell, T.S., and Potter, T.G. (2021). Outdoor journeys as a catalyst for enhanced place connectedness and environmental stewardship. Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education, 24(2), 215–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42322-021-00079-6
From the Conclusion
From the Conclusion
James, R., Fisher, J.R.B., Carlos-Grotjahn, C., Boylan, M.S., Dembereldash, B., Demissie, M.Z., De Villegas, C.D., Gibbs, B., Konia, R., Lyons, K., Possingham, H., Robinson, C.J., Tang, J., and Butt, N. (2023). Gender bias and inequity holds women back in their conservation careers. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.1056751
Lansing, A.E., Romero, N.J., Siantz, E., Silva, V., Center, K., Casteel, D., and Gilmer, T. (2023). Building trust: Leadership reflections on community empowerment and engagement in a large urban initiative. BMC Public Health, 23, 1252. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-15860-z
Thomasik, E. and Gottfried, J. (2023). U.S. journalists’ beats vary widely by gender and other factors. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/04/04/us-journalists-beats-vary-widely-by-gender-and-other-factors/
All Citations
All Citations
Appalachian Voices. (2021). Mountaintop removal 101. https://appvoices.org/end-mountaintop-removal/mtr101/
ARC. (n.d.). Population and age in Appalachia. Appalachian Regional Commission. https://www.arc.gov/appalachias-population/
Ayangbenro, A.S., Olanrewaju, O.S., and Bablola, O.O. (2018). Sulfate-reducing bacteria as an effective tool for sustainable acid mine bioremediation. Frontiers in Microbiology, 9, 1986. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.01986
Benyus, J.M. (2002). Chapter 1: Echoing nature. Biomimicry: Innovation inspired by nature. HarperCollins Publishers.
Bernhardt, E.S. and Palmer, M.A. (2011). The environmental costs of mountaintop mining valley fill operations for aquatic ecosystems of the Central Appalachians. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1223. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.05986.x
Black, J.J. and Weber, J.G. (2024). Treating abandoned mine drainage can protect streams cost effectively and benefit vulnerable communities. Communications Earth & Environment, 5, 508. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01669-0
Cecchi, G., Marescotti, P., Di Piazza, S., and Zotti, M. (2017). Native fungi as metal remediations: Silver myco-accumulation from metal contaminated waste-rock dumps (Libiola Mine, Italy). Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B, 52(3), 191–195.
Climbing Business Journal. (2024). Gyms and trends 2023. Climbing Business Journal. https://climbingbusinessjournal.com/gyms-and-trends-2023/
Conservation Fisheries. (n.d.). Southern Appalachia: Pinnacle of aquatic biodiversity. https://www.conservationfisheries.org/appalachia
Cvitanovic, C. and Hobday, A.J. (2018). Building optimism at the environmental science-policy practice interface through the study of bright spots. Nature Communications, 9, 3466. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-05977-w
Dalberto, A.D., Scheetz, B.E., Hornberger, R.J., Kania, T.C., Menghini, M.J., and Walters, S.E. (2004). Chapter 1: Overview: Coal ash beneficial use and mine land reclamation. In Coal Ash Beneficial Use in Mine Reclamation and Mine Drainage Remediation in Pennsylvania (pp. 1–19). https://files.dep.state.pa.us/Mining/District%20Mining/DistrictMinePortalFiles/Beneficial_Use/09_CHAPT_1/Chapter_1_final.pdf
Dasandi, N., Graham, H., Hudson, D., Jankin, S., vanHeerde-Hudson, J., and Watts, N. (2022). Positive, global, and health or environment framing bolsters public support for climate policies. Communications Earth & Environment, 3, 239. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00571-x
Hendryx, M. and Ahern, M.M. (2009). Mortality in Appalachian coal mining regions: The value of statistical life lost. Public Health Reports, 124(4), 541–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/003335490912400411
James, R., Fisher, J.R.B., Carlos-Grotjahn, C., Boylan, M.S., Dembereldash, B., Demissie, M.Z., De Villegas, C.D., Gibbs, B., Konia, R., Lyons, K., Possingham, H., Robinson, C.J., Tang, J., and Butt, N. (2023). Gender bias and inequity holds women back in their conservation careers. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.1056751
Kulshreshtha, S., Mathur, N., and Bhatnagar, P. (2014). Mushroom as a product and their role in mycoremediation. AMB Express, 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13568-014-0029-8
Lansing, A.E., Romero, N.J., Siantz, E., Silva, V., Center, K., Casteel, D., and Gilmer, T. (2023). Building trust: Leadership reflections on community empowerment and engagement in a large urban initiative. BMC Public Health, 23, 1252. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-15860-z
Lenahan, G. (2022). Acid mine drainage treatment facilities: Reversing hundreds of years of pollution to bring Pennsylvania's streams and rivers back to life. Our Common Wealth. https://www.dep.pa.gov/OurCommonWealth/pages/Article.aspx?post=92
Lindberg, T.T., Bernhardt, E.S., Bier, R., Helton, A.M., Merola, R.B., Vengosh, A., and Di Giulio, R.T. (2011). Cumulative impacts of mountaintop mining on an Appalachian watershed. Biological Sciences, 108(52), 20929–20934. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1112381108
Miller, A.B., Larson, L.R., Wimpey, J., and Reigner, N. (2020). Chapter 16: Outdoor recreation and environmental stewardship: The sustainable symbiosis. In S. Selin, L.K. Cerveny, D.J. Blahna, and A.B. Miller (Eds.), Igniting Research for Outdoor Recreation: Linking Science, Policy, and Action. U.S. Forest Service. https://www.fs.usda.gov/pnw/pubs/pnw_gtr987_Selin_Chap16.pdf
PA DEP. (2024). PA's mining legacy and AML. Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection. https://www.dep.pa.gov/Business/Land/Mining/AbandonedMineReclamation/AMLProgramInformation/Pages/PA's-Mining-Legacy-and-AML.aspx
Pericak, A.A., Thomas, C.J., Kroodsma, D.A., Wasson, M.F., Ross, M.R.V., Clinton, N.E., Campagna, D.J., Franklin, Y., Bernhardt, E.S., and Amos, J.F. (2018). Mapping the yearly extent of surface coal mining in Central Appalachia using Landsat and Google Earth Engine. PLoS One, 13(7), e0197758. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197758
Peters, E., Boyd, P., Cameron, L.D., Contractor, N., Diefenbach, M.A., Fleszar-Pavlovic, S., Markowitz, E., Salas, R.N., and Stephens, K.K. (2022). Evidence-based recommendations for communicating the impacts of climate change on health. Translational Behavioral Medicine, 12(4), 543–553. https://doi.org/10.1093/tbm/ibac029
Pickering, J., Kays, R., Meier, A., Andrew, S., and Yatskievych, K. (2002). The Appalachians. In P.R. Gil, R.A. Mittermeier, C.G. Mittermeier, J. Pilgrim, G. Fonseca, W.R. Konstant, and T. Brooks (Eds.), Wilderness - Earth’s Last Wild Places (pp. 458–467). Conservation International. https://www.discoverlife.org/co/
Ross, M.R.V., McGlynn, B.L., and Bernhardt, E.S. (2016). Deep impact: Effects of mountaintop mining on surface topography, bedrock structure, and downstream waters. Environmental Science and Technology, 50, 2064–2074. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b04532
Scanlan, S.J. (2013). The theoretical roots and sociology of environmental justice in Appalachia. In M. Morrone, G.L. Buckley, D.E. Davis, and J. Purdy (Eds.), Mountains of Injustice (pp. 3–31). Ohio University Press.
Schwass, N.R., Potter, S.E., O’Connell, T.S., and Potter, T.G. (2021). Outdoor journeys as a catalyst for enhanced place connectedness and environmental stewardship. Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education, 24(2), 215–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42322-021-00079-6
Simonin, M., Rocca, J.D., Gerson, J.R., Moore, E., Brooks, A.C., Czaplicki, L., Ross, M.R.V., Fierer, N., Craine, J.M., and Bernhardt, E.S. (2021). Consistent declines in squatic biodiversity across diverse domains of life in rivers impacted by surface coal mining. Ecological Applications, 31(6), e02389. https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.2389
Thomas, C.J., Shriver, R.K., Nippgen, F., Hepler, M, and Ross, M.R.V. (2022). Mines to forests? Analyzing long-term recovery trends for surface coal mines in Central Appalachia. Restoration Ecology, 31(5), e13827. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13827
Thomasik, E. and Gottfried, J. (2023). U.S. journalists’ beats vary widely by gender and other factors. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/04/04/us-journalists-beats-vary-widely-by-gender-and-other-factors/
Thorington, R.W. Jr., Pitassy, D., and Jansa, S.A. (2002). Phylogenies of flying squirrels (Pteromyinae). Journal of Mammalian Evolution, 9, 99–135. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021335912016
U.S. Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement. Glossary. U.S. Department of the Interior. https://www.osmre.gov/resources/glossary
Wickham, J., Wood, P.B., Nicholson, M.C., Jenkins, W., Druckenbrod, D., Suter, G.W., Strager, M.P., Mazzarella, C., Galloway, W., and Amos, J. (2013). The overlooked terrestrial impacts of mountaintop mining. BioScience, 63(5), 335–348. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2013.63.5.7
Wrogley, C. (2020). Mammoth task: The Russian family on a resurrection quest to tackle the climate crisis. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/mammoth-task-the-russian-family-on-a-resurrection-quest-to-tackle-the-climate-crisis-138142
Zhao, Y., Zhang, J., Chou, C.-L., Li, Y., Wang, Z., Ge, Y., and Zheng, C. (2008). Trace element emissions from spontaneous combustion of gob piles in coal mines, Shanxi, China. International Journal of Coal Geology, 73(1), 52–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2007.07.007
Zipper, C. and Skousen, J. (2021). Coal’s legacy in Appalachia: Lands, waters, and people. The Extractive Industries and Society, 8(4), 100990. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2021.100990
Appendix A: Operational Definitions
Appendix A: Operational Definitions
By order of appearance
By order of appearance
Author's note: The first usage of the following terms is marked in bold in the main body of the portfolio.
Restoration: Returning the ecological and biological components of a damaged, degraded, or destroyed ecosystem back to a historically native state.
Reclamation: Bringing the ecological and biological components of a damaged, degraded, or destroyed ecosystem to a stable condition.
Deforestation: The intentional clearing of trees from an area of forested land.
Acid mine drainage (AMD): Highly acidic and toxic water rich in heavy metals commonly associated with coal mining. Usually bright orange, red, or yellow.
Biodiversity: The variety of lifeforms in a habitat or ecosystem.
Environmental justice: The just treatment and meaningful involvement of all people to ensure equitable access to healthy, sustainable, and resilient natural environments.
Conservation: Protecting natural environments and biological organisms from exploitation, destruction, and extinction.
Bioremediation: Using biological systems to remove environmental pollution.
Stewardship: Actions that directly support the responsible use and protection of a natural environment.
Surface mining: The dominant form of mining in Appalachia today. This category of mining removes all vegetation, soil, and rock above an ore deposit.
Mountaintop removal mining: A subset of surface mining in which a mountain is flattened to access the ore deposits contained within.
Mycoremediation: Using fungi to remove pollutants from an environment.
Biosorption: When a biological organism accumulates heavy metals through metabolic or physico-chemical processes.
Crag: A cliff or rock face; in the context of outdoor recreation, a crag is an area where people go to climb.
Goatscape: The process of using goats to remove unwanted vegetation from a designated area.
Alphabetically
Alphabetically
Author's note: The first usage of the following terms is marked in bold in the main body of the portfolio.
Acid mine drainage (AMD): Highly acidic and toxic water rich in heavy metals commonly associated with coal mining. Usually bright orange, red, or yellow.
Biodiversity: The variety of lifeforms in a habitat or ecosystem.
Bioremediation: Using biological systems to remove environmental pollution.
Biosorption: When a biological organism accumulates heavy metals through metabolic or physico-chemical processes.
Conservation: Protecting natural environments and biological organisms from exploitation, destruction, and extinction.
Crag: A cliff or rock face; in the context of outdoor recreation, a crag is an area where people go to climb.
Deforestation: The intentional clearing of trees from an area of forested land.
Environmental justice: The just treatment and meaningful involvement of all people to ensure equitable access to healthy, sustainable, and resilient natural environments.
Goatscape: The process of using goats to remove unwanted vegetation from a designated area.
Mountaintop removal mining: A subset of surface mining in which a mountain is flattened to access the ore deposits contained within.
Mycoremediation: Using fungi to remove pollutants from an environment.
Reclamation: Bringing the ecological and biological components of a damaged, degraded, or destroyed ecosystem to a stable condition.
Restoration: Returning the ecological and biological components of a damaged, degraded, or destroyed ecosystem back to a historically native state.
Stewardship: Actions that directly support the responsible use and protection of a natural environment.
Surface mining: The dominant form of mining in Appalachia today. This category of mining removes all vegetation, soil, and rock above an ore deposit.
About the Author
About the Author
Gretchen Uhrinek (she/her) loves nature and she loves words. As an undergraduate student at the University of Pittsburgh, Gretchen earned a BA in creative writing and a minor in sociology, as well as two writing awards and two fellowships for the annual Chautauqua Writers’ Festival in New York. Shortly after graduation, she earned a certificate in grant proposal writing and helped launch a non-profit, Veterans Write, which brings weekly writing workshops to the greater Pittsburgh veteran community. Professionally, she has worked as a freelance writer, a copyeditor, and the writer and editor of two engineering society magazines, a role she currently holds today. Her work has been featured in Red Canary Magazine, Northern Woodlands Magazine, Animal Wellness Magazine, and elsewhere. In her spare time, she co-captains Sustainability Club, a rock-climbing group dedicated to environmental stewardship.
If you'd like to get ahold of Gretchen, find her on LinkedIn or send her an email at gretchen (dot) uhrinek (at) gmail (dot) com.
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