Zoroastrian ritual exposure of the dead is first attested in the mid-5th century BCE Histories of Herodotus, an Ancient Greek historian who observed the custom amongst Iranian expatriates in Asia Minor; however, the use of towers is first documented in the early 9th century CE.[1][2] In Herodotus' account (in Histories i.140), the Zoroastrian funerary rites are said to have been "secret"; however they were first performed after the body had been dragged around by a bird or dog. The corpse was then embalmed with wax and laid in a trench.[4]
To preclude the pollution of the sacred elements: earth (zm), water (pas), and fire (tar), the bodies of the dead are placed at the top of towers and there exposed to the sun and to scavenging birds and necrophagous animals such as wild dogs.[1][2][3] Thus, as an early-20th-century Secretary of the Mumbai Parsi community explained: "putrefaction with all its concomitant evils... is most effectually prevented."[12]
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Modern-day towers, which are fairly uniform in their construction, have an almost flat roof, with the perimeter being slightly higher than the centre. The roof is divided into three concentric rings: the bodies of men are arranged around the outer ring, women in the second ring, and children in the innermost ring. The ritual precinct may be entered only by a special class of pallbearers, called nusessalars, from the Avestan: nasa a salar, consisting of the word elements, -salar ('caretaker') and nasa- ('pollutants').
In the Iranian Zoroastrian tradition, the towers were built atop hills or low mountains in locations distant from population centres. In the early 20th century, Iranian Zoroastrians gradually discontinued their use and began to favour burial or cremation.[15]
The decision to change the system was accelerated by three considerations: the first problem arose with the establishment of the Dar ul-Funun medical school. Since Islam considers dissection of corpses as an unnecessary form of mutilation, thus forbidding it,[16] there were no corpses for study available through official channels. The towers were repeatedly broken into, much to the dismay of the Zoroastrian community.[citation needed] Secondly, while the towers had been built away from population centres, the growth of the towns led to the towers now being within city limits.[15] Finally, many of the Zoroastrians found the system outdated.[15] Following long negotiations between the anjuman societies of Yazd, Kerman, and Tehran, the latter gained a majority and established a cemetery some 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from Tehran at Ghassr-e Firouzeh (Firouzeh's Palace). The graves were lined with rocks and plastered with cement to prevent direct contact with the earth. In Yazd and Kerman, in addition to cemeteries, orthodox Zoroastrians continued to maintain a tower until the Iranian revolution of 1979, when ritual exposure was prohibited by law.[citation needed]
The towers remain in use as sacred locations for the Parsi community,[22] though non-members may not enter them.[23] In Mumbai visitors are shown a model of a tower. Organized tours can be taken to the site.[24][25]
A 22-year-old Hispanic male tower technician fell 1200 feet to his death from a 1500 foot high television transmission tower. The victim was part of a five person maintenance crew reinforcing the tower after installation of a high-definition television antenna. While changing positions, the victim, who was using a positioning system but not an independent fall protection system, slipped and fell. The victim was pronounced dead at the scene.
The goal of the Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation (FACE) workplace investigation is to prevent future work-related deaths or injuries, by a study of the working environment, the worker, the task the worker was performing, the tools the worker was using, and the role of management in controlling how these factors interact.
The employer had a previous history of fall fatalities prior to this incident. Also, five months after this incident, the company was performing similar work on a television tower in Alabama when the tower collapsed, killing three more employees.
Victim: The victim was a 22-year-old Hispanic male. The tower company had employed him since January of 2000 as a tower technician. According to company officials he was the most experienced worker on site with 3 years of tower climbing experience. He had been on this site for two weeks.
The victim was working on the South leg (face) of the tower tightening bolts on the half-pipe support braces. Worker #2 was working on the east side of the South leg. Worker #3 was assisting both the victim and worker #2, and was also carrying parts from the pan to the tower.
A side load will be generated when the hook is placed such that it cannot take the force in a vertical manner according to its design criteria. A close examination of the tower configuration would need to be made to determine if attachment to a diagonal member or other structural member could result in a side deflection.
Discussion: The victim was not wearing shoes at the time of his fall, only white cotton socks. It could not be determined whether his shoes were in the pan or had been left on the ground before the ascent. 1 Basic equipment for climbing towers generally consists of a hard hat, short leather gloves, leather climbing boots with good arch support, a standard positioning belt and an approved safety harness with lanyards.
Discussion: 4 When the employer has reason to believe that any affected employee who has already been trained in fall protection does not have the understanding and skill required by previous training, the employer shall retrain each employee. Worker #2 stated that although he saw the victim was not tied off to the tower structure, he failed to say anything about it.
The project Cotton was on involved several layers of subcontractors, which is common in the tower industry. The accident was more unusual. Most of the 50 tower climbers killed on cell site jobs since 2003 have died in falls, but Cotton was crushed to death by an antenna.
The Project: An upgrade of a cell site in Talladega, Ala., replacing the antennas on a 400-foot tower. AT&T had designated the upgrade a top priority because of an upcoming NASCAR race, a company manager said in court testimony.
The Accident: On Friday, March 10, 2006, around noon, the ALT crew, led by foreman Josh Cook, was lowering an antenna from the tower, while the Betacom crew, which included Cotton and Wheeler, worked inside the shelter.
ALT was cited for failing to inspect and remove the rope that snapped and fined $2,000. Betacom was cited for failing to ensure that workers on the ground crew wore hard hats and fined $4,900. OSHA sent letters to both companies saying it was dangerous for tower crews to work above other crews, and that even though regulations did not forbid it, they should avoid such situations.
On a clear evening in May, Guilford was dangling, 150 feet in the air, from a cell tower in southwest Indiana. He had been sent aloft to take pictures of AT&T antennas soon to be replaced by 3G equipment.
Work complete, Guilford sped his descent by rappelling on a rope. Safety standards required him to step down the metal pole, peg by peg, using a special line that would catch automatically if he fell. But tower climbing is a field in which such rules are routinely ignored.
Tower climbing, an obscure field with no more than 10,000 workers, has a death rate roughly 10 times that of construction. In the last nine years, nearly 100 tower climbers have been killed on the job. More than half of them were working on cell sites.
We found that in accident after accident, deadly missteps often resulted because climbers were shoddily equipped or received little training before being sent up hundreds of feet. To satisfy demands from carriers or large contractors, tower hands sometimes worked overnight or in dangerous conditions.
In a written statement, AT&T said it required its contractors to follow safety regulations and that cell tower fatalities had decreased in recent years even as carriers have continued to make expensive improvements to their wireless networks. There were no fatalities on AT&T jobs last year, the statement noted.
Until the 1990s, most tower work involved radio and television towers, which can be more than 1,000 feet high. Some phone companies employed staff climbers to work on microwave towers used for long-distance calling.
Climbers live out of motel rooms, installing antennas in Oklahoma one day, building a tower in Tennessee the next. The work attracts risk-takers and rebels. Of the 33 tower fatalities for which autopsy records were available, 10 showed climbers had drugs or alcohol in their systems.
The same handful of factors crop up again and again in agency investigations of worker deaths, our reporting found. In two dozen cases, for example, inspectors found that workers on sites where fatalities occurred had received inadequate training, records show.
Faulty or misused equipment was identified in almost one-third of the tower-related deaths since 2003, OSHA records show. In April 2008, after 46-year-old William Bernard died in a 75-foot fall, an inspector found that his safety harness, rusty with wear, had a defective hook.
Carriers sometimes power down cell sites when climbers are on them, so subcontractors often work overnight, when fewer customers will notice disruptions. Jeremy Combs, 33, fell to his death just before midnight in September 2008, on a job where the crew wore headlamps and raced to meet an accelerated timetable, OSHA inspectors found.
In November 2003, Hull, then 35, was hired by a subcontractor to help build a 350-foot cell tower for Nextel in a cornfield near Fremont, Neb. The job needed to be done by midnight on Thanksgiving, just seven days away.
The project ran into a series of problems. The crane operator, deciding it was too windy to work, took his crane and left. Hull found replacement equipment, but it was in Texas, more than 15 hours away. Setting out to retrieve it, Hull and another tower hand, Frankie Ketchens, drove nonstop, taking turns behind the wheel. 006ab0faaa
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