Queer World, Queer Times

The concept of gender binary as a categorization of individuals into male or female, is a relatively modern construction that comes along with other ‘Western’ societal norms. If we look into various ancient cultures and their understandings of gender and sexuality, we can find fluid and hybrid frameworks that include a high flexibility of gender identities and integrate non-heteronormative relationships. For example, the concept of genderfluidity that allows individuals to position themselves across or outside gender binaries, has been present in various forms around the globe and throughout history.

The look into ancient understandings helps to critically question the claim of an existence of universal gender norms that are based on binarity and heterosexuality. In ancient cultures we can find a normalizing acceptance of genderfluid figures, third-gender expressions, and bisexual practices. We are sharing here a few examples from different historical and geographical contexts to illustrate the braod variety of concepts of gender identities.

By revisiting these histories, we can challenge the hegemony of modern Western gender binaries and foster a more inclusive understanding of gender as a fluid and multifaceted experience. This historical perspective is not only a source of affirmation for contemporary queer communities but also serves as a reminder that human gender and sexuality have always been far more complex than simple binary categories.

GENDERFLUIDITY WORLDWIDE

EXAMPLE 1: MESOPOTAMIA - GALA PRIESTS

In ancient Mesopotamia, we meet the figure of the "Gala" priest which is a good illustration of gender fluidity. The goddess Inanna was associated with gender-bending, often depicted as moving between masculine and feminine realms. The Gala priests in her service mirrored this fluidity, embodying roles that were neither entirely male nor female, but something in between (O'Brien, 2020). Today, they could be read as trans- or intersexual persons. Furthermore, the Sumerian language had specific terms to describe people between male or female categories. This demonstrates that gender in ancient Mesopotamia was not a fixed identity but a spectrum that individuals could move across.

EXAMPLE 2: NORTH AMERICA - TWO SPIRITS

In Indigenous North American cultures, the presence of ‘Two-Spirit’ individuals can serve as another example of genderfluidity. The term ‘Two-Spirit’ refers to people who embody both masculine and feminine qualities, often occupying spiritual or ceremonial roles within their communities. In contrast to the modern Western gender binary, these Indigenous communities understood gender in a more holistic way, with Two-Spirit individuals playing important social and spiritual roles, which were seen as natural and valuable (Roscoe, 1998). This tradition proofs that Western binary conceptions of gender and sexuality are far from universal.

EXAMPLE 3: SOUTH ASIA - ARDHANARISHVARA

In South Asia, Hindu mythology offers an broad spectrum of genderfluid and bisexual deities. One of the most notable examples is the androgynous form of Ardhanarishvara, a god(dess) who is both male and female, embodying the synthesis of Shiva and Parvati. This representation lifts genderfluidity on a divine level and stands for the cultural acceptance of non-binary identities in pre-colonial Indian society (Goldberg, E. (2002): The Lord Who is Half Woman: Ardhanarisvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective. State University of New York Press.).

EXAMPLE 4: SOUTH ASIA - HIJARA COMMUNITY

The Hijra community in South Asia, represents a third-gender identity. Hijras have traditionally been assigned male at birth but often take over feminine roles. They have historically been recognized as a legitimate gender category in South Asian society, occupying roles in religious and social ceremonies, especially as blessings for childbirth and marriage (Nanda, S. (1999): Neither Man nor Woman: The Hijras of India. Wadsworth Publishing.)

EXAMPLE 5: AFRICA

Many pre-colonial African cultures also recognized the existence of gender nonconforming individuals. Among the Shona in Zimbabwe and the Lovedu of South Africa, there are reports of female husbands who were biologically female but take on male social roles (like marrying women) and were considered integral part of their communities (Amadiume, I. (1987). Male Daughters, Female Husbands: Gender and Sex in an African Society. Zed Books.)

Also in parts of West Africa, male individuals sometimes took on the roles of priestesses or gender-fluid spiritual figures, which was seen as something natural and spiritually valuable (Epprecht, M. (2008): Heterosexual Africa?: The History of an Idea from the Age of Exploration to the Age of AIDS. Ohio University Press.)

BISEXUALITY AND SEXUAL FLUIDITY IN ANTIQUITY

In addition to fluid conceptions of gender, many ancient societies express an openness to same-sex relationships and bisexuality.

Classical Greece is probably the best-known example and offers written evidence of normalized same-sex relations (mainly between men). Especially relationships between adult men and adolescent boy was a socially accepted and even encouraged form of ‘mentorship’ that oftentimes also included a sexual component. These relationships were seen as part of a broader spectrum of human desire, and men living their homosexual desires were accepted without societal stigma.

Ancient Athenian society understood these relationships as an integral part of social bonding, intellectual development, and emotional intimacy (Dover, K. J. (1978): Greek Homosexuality. Harvard University Press.) It is important to note that besides the acceptance of same-sex experiences, adult men were still expected to marry women and build families. The same-sex relationships were seen a complementary aspect of human experience to this.

Similarly, in ancient Rome, bisexuality was normalized, mainly among the upper classes, but oftentimes these relationships were based on power dynamics and social hierarchy. Roman society did not see same-sex practices as a threat to masculinity or to the institution of marriage, which kept on being focused on reproduction (Williams, C. (2010): Roman Homosexuality: Ideologies of Masculinity in Classical Antiquity. Oxford University Press.)

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