ṣiḫḫu

The definitive host, the dog, is an asymptomatic carrier. There are no symptoms in sheep. The male stock probably does not display much signs of being a carrier because it is slaughtered young, although the Babylonian diviners saw the cysts. Longer lived sheep, while being asymptomatic, may reduce the flock’s ability in providing meat, milk and fleece; Eckert, J. and Deplazes 2004: 114.

Obviously the ancients knew nothing of the parasite and its life-cycle. They certainly recognized it, because the cysts heavily scar the inner parts; see fig. 3. The phenomenon was first described by the Babylonians, so much is obvious, during the inspection of the inner parts. In particular the ṣiḫḫu was observed on parts of the Finger of the liver (Nougayrol 1969, Text B), around the Crucible of the liver (Nougayrol 1969, Text C), the middle lobe of the lung (KAL 5 56), the spleen (YOS 10 41), the chest (CUSAS 18, no. 22), and the kidneys (KAL 5 80–82). Notably the liver as a single organ is said to be full of cysts (Koch 2005, no. 13, 72, p .200). These are indeed the areas which are particularly susceptible to be affected by the parasite. Whether or not the Babylonians recognized the mark as a pathology is not clear, because the apodoses can be positive or negative.

There is a disease called diḫu or di’u which affects the army (e.g., KAL 5 37 §§37–38), but regardless of any etymological tie with the ṣiḫḫu, it is never found in the apodoses following protases featuring the mark. Hence there is no need to assume that the pathology is related to the ṣiḫḫu.

Another disease, however, strongly linked to the ṣiḫḫu is the bennu disease, usually understood to be epilepsy (Jeyes 1989: 90 and 107), although that is far from certain. The association is circumstantial, because it is clear that the bennu disease exhibits no symptoms and may appear without warning. In sale contracts of slaves, it is stipulated that the slave may be returned to his former owner with full compensation, if within a window of time (a month to several), the bennu disease afflicts him. Hence, it is a repeating disease with no outer symptoms.

Although the bennu disease is documented in many divergent sources (Stol 1993), in extispicy, one can carefully say, it exclusively appears in the apodoses following ṣiḫḫu protases. Here is one example:

A Kidney Compendium (KAL 5 82), §53

šumma elēnu kalitti ṣiḫḫum nadi bennu eli amēli imaqqut

If a Cyst is placed on the upper part of a kidney, the bennu disease will fall upon the client.

It is not clear why bennu is associated with the ṣiḫḫu omens, but it is not likely that any pathological connection was assumed by the Babylonians or that they necessarily recognized the cysts in humans, and consciously linked them to any disease whatsoever.

However, in humans, the disease can linger many years. Symptoms include stomach pains, nausea, when the liver is infected, and coughing, shortness of breath and chest pain, when the lungs carry the parasite; the disease can be fatal and the cysts can infect many organs; World Health Organization 2021.

The Greek and Roman Classic physicians Hippocrates, Galen, and Aretaeus also described the phenomenon of hydatids, clearly recognizing it as a pathology in animals and humans (by examining remains). The cause of the cysts was established with certainty much later, around 1850 AD; Eckert, J. 2007.

There are reports of hydatids on human bone remains from the Late Roman Period (Amiens, France; Mowlavi et al. 2014), from Medieval Islamic Spain (López-Gijón et al. 2023), and Israel. An histological examination of a head of a mummy from Egypt has shown a hydatid cyst; Mitchell 2023: 27.

7. Spelling and Attestations

Old Babylonian

Ritual of the Diviner (Starr 1983: 35), § 105

[i-na k]á é.gal-lim ṣi-iḫ-ḫu-um lu r[u-uš]-šu-uk

(In the left-side), let there be a completely dried up Cyst [in] the Palace [Ga]te.

A naplaštu Compendium (CUSAS 18, no. 7, p. 31), § 6

šum-ma na-ap-la-aš-tum ki-ma un-qí-im ik-pu-┌up-ma┐ù ṣí-ḫu-um i-na qá-ab-li-ša 

ša-ki-in dIškur ù dNin-urta ḫi-ši-ib ma-tim ú-[ḫa-l]a-qú

If the Viewer curls up like a ring and there is a Cyst within it, Adad and Ninurta will completely annihilate the country’s produce.

An ubānu Compendium (BM 78241 = CT 44 37; Nougayrol 1969, Text B), ll. 14 and 15

[be] i-na re-eš šu.si ṣí-ḫu-um wa-ar-qum na-di erín-ni mu-ú i-ka-al-lu-ú

[If] on the top of the Finger a green Cyst is placed, a body of water will wash away my army.

[be i-na] re-eš šu.si i-na i-mi-ti šu.si ṣí-ḫu na-di-ma danan ù pa-li-iš te-šu-um a-na kur 

i-[te-ḫi]-a-am

 [If on] the top of the Finger on the right of the Finger a Cyst is placed and it is hard and perforated, turmoil will r[is]e throughout the land.

 A naṣraptu Compendium (MAH 15994; Nougayrol 1969, Text C; CAD/T: 392), l. 17

 diš i-na egir na-a[ṣ-r]a-ap-tim ša i-mi-tim ṣí-ḫu na-di [t]i-bu-ut ku-up-ri-im

If on the back side of the Crucible to the right a Cyst is placed, an attack of the army bulk.

 A Kidneys Compendium (Aro and Nougayrol 1973; Jeyes 1989: 107), ll. 67΄–68΄

 be e-le-nu bi-ri sa-ḫu-um gar-ra bé-en-nu-u[m l]a te-bu-um e-li lú i-ma-qú-ut

 If on the top part of the kidney a Cyst is found, a fatal bennu disease will fall upon the client.

Hattuša

See above under liver models

Middle Babylonian / Susa / Sealand

 A qerbū Compendium (Nougayrol 1971; AO 7539; probably Sealand; cf. CUSAS 18, no. 31)

39΄ diš qer-bu mi+ib-ḫimeš ul-lu-lu erín-ni erín lú.kúr-ri i-ta-na-an-da-ar

If (in) the small intestines – Cysts hang down, my army will exceedingly fear the enemy’s army.

40΄diš qer-bi mi+ib-ḫimeš-ḫu ú-na-aḫ-ḫi-lu i-na gištukul erín-ni uš-ta-ab-ba-ar

If (in) the small intestines – Cysts seep down, my army will be broken apart in battle.

61΄diš i-na sag qer-bi mi+ib-ḫi šub-ma mi+ib-ḫi a-na qer-bi qer-bu a-na mi+ib-ḫi me-e

i-na-an-di-nu mulṢa-al-ba-ta-nu i-na-ap-pa-ḫa-am-ma bu-la ú-ḫal-la-aq

If on top of the small intestines there lie Cysts and the Cysts and the small intestines exude liquids each upon the other, Ṣalbatānu (i.e., Mars) will flare up and completely annihilate the cattle herds (by pestilence). 

A pû ṭābu Compendium (CUSAS 18, no. 23; Sealand), §35

[diš i-n]a libbi(šà) pî(ka) ṭābi(dug4.ga) mi+ib-ḫi ar-qú na-di-ma ù tubqū(ubmeš) la-m[u-šu] [i-na gi]škakki(tukul) miqitti(šubti) ālik pān(igi.du) ummāniya(érinni-ia) u4-ma ri-qá miqitti(šubti) mārē(dumumeš) bārî(máš.┌šu┐.[gíd.gíd])

[If i]nside the Good Mouth a green Cyst in located and angular shapes enc[ircle it from all directions], the vanguard of my army will fall in battle; in the distant future, the diviners will perish.

A nīdi kussê Compendium (MDP 57 4; Susa), rev. 42 

diš ta ki šub.ba gu.za záḫ šub.ba-ma éš egir géme-ma gam-uš [dúr-ib igi] 3.20 ad.hal 3.[20 šu.ti.a(?)]-ma éš kur kúr záḫ

šumma ina ašar nīdi kussî ṣiḫḫu nadī-ma ana arkat amūti-ma iknuš [āšib maḫar] šarri pirišti ša[rri ileqqē]-ma ana māt nakri innabit

If in the site of the Throne Seat there is a Cyst that curves behind the liver, the king’s [counciler will take] the king’s secrets and defect to the enemy’s land.

 Middle Assyrian

 An ubānu Compendium (Ass. 4530 = KAL 5 37; also Nougayrol 1969, Text A)

 rev. 5 šumma(be) ina imitti(zag) ubāni(šu.si) di nadi(šub)-ma ana šumel(gùb) ubāni(šu.si) aṣi(è) tēšû(súḫ) ina māti(kur)

If to the right of the Finger a Cyst is placed and it protrudes towards the left of the Finger, disorder in the land.

8 šumma(be) rēš(sag) ubāni(šu.si) di ḫa-a-li úš-ut rubê(nun)

If the top of the Finger – the Cyst exudes liquids, death of the prince.

10 šumma(be) rēš(sag) ubāni(šu.si) di nadi(šub)-ma u nu-ru-ub šamūtu(an) rēš(sag) arḫi(iti) 

ṭa-ḫi-tu izannun(surnun)

If on the top of the Finger a Cyst is placed and it is very moist, there will be abundant rains at the beginning of the month.

●        Middle Assyrian/Middle Babylonian Forerunner to the Bārûtu 

A ‘Foot’ Compendium (KAR 454 = KAL 5 86), obv. 17

[be ina] šumēl(gùb) marti(zé) šēpu ina libbiša(šà-ša) ṣí-ḫu nadi(šub) mi-lum i-il-l[a-ak]

[If in the] left side of the gallbladder a Foot is (placed) and inside a Cyst is placed, the flood will co[me].

SB Bārûtu Series 

The Padānu, Tablet 4, Bārûtu (Koch 2000, no. 27, pp. 192–193), §1

be gír 2-ma ina bi-ri-šú-nu di-ḫu nu-úr-ru-bu šub-di bà-ut lugal-gi.na šá erín-šú ra-a-du 

i-si-ru-ma gištil-li-šú-nu ana a-ḫa-meš uš-pe-lu

šumma padānu šināma ina birišunu ṣiḫḫu nurrub nadi amūt Šarru-kīn ša ummanšu rādu īsiruma tillišunu ana aḫāmeš ušpêlū

If there are two Paths and between them lies a very moist Cyst, it is the omen of Sargon, whose army the downpour had locked down so that they turned their weapons against each other.

 Commentaries

Manzāzu Commentary I (Koch 2000, no. 19, p. 134), 15

be di-ḫu na-ar-bu di-ḫu gal-ú du-ru A raṭ-bu ra-bu-u na-pa-šu šá ma-’-di-e 

šumma ṣiḫḫu narbu ṣiḫḫu rabû du-ru A raṭbu napāšu ša ma’dê

If (you have an omen that contains in the protasis) ‘a moist Cyst’ or ‘a great Cyst’, (in the apodosis you should read) the sign ‘A’ as ‘duru’, which means ‘wet’ or ‘extremely expanded.’

Throughout the SB extispicy materials, the writing di-ḫu for ṣiḫḫu is found. There are two ways of understanding this writing. Either as a syllabic writing with the sign di as an actual syllable resulting in di-ḫu, which marks a diachronic progression from /ṣ/ to /d/ (Koch 2000: 47; CAD/Ṣ: 176–179). Or as a logogram di followed by a phonetic complement ḫu (for ṣiḫḫu or saḫḫu).

However, the second choice is to be preferred. First, as Nougayrol (1971: 84) argued, there is no attestation of *di-iḫ-ḫu. additionally, as Nougayrol (ibid.) explains, writing with di alone or di.meš (see above the ubānu compendium and further KAL 5 37), and with ‘false’ phonetic complements, with writing such as di-ḫi.meš (KAL 5 56 rev. 16), are clear indicators that di cannot be a phonetic abbreviation of ṣiḫḫu. We add that there are no cases in which phonetic abbreviations (such as an or pa), in extispicy literature, are provided with a plural determinative (meš), or ‘false’ phonetic complements.

To conclude, the SB writing of the term with di and ḫu points to the use of di as a logogram with a phonetic complement.

The question we now face is why was di chosen for a logogram for ṣiḫḫu, and secondly, why, if chosen as such, it required a consistent phonetic complement, especially in the SB materials. For an answer, we turn to the other uses of the di sign as a logogram in different omen texts.

The sign di, read as silim, is used in oil omen compendia, as a feature that appears upon the surface of the oil. It renders the Akkadian šulmu, which, in the oil omens designates, without a doubt, a bubble.

Pettinato (1966, vol. II), Text 1, no. 32 

šumma (šamnum) silim iddiamma u beli marṣum imât 

If (the oil) produces a bubble and it dissolves, the sick man will die.

The same logogram di or silim (Akk. šulmu) is also used to designate a feature on the liver.

Bārûtu Excerpt (KAL 5 1; TCL 6, 3, l. 29;), ii 49 

šumma silim kīma naplašti u padāni šakin silimlum napišti 

If the šulmu lies like the Viewer and the Path, wholesomeness.

The logographic writing di = silim for šulmu is found already in Old Babylonian extispicy and oil compendia. In the protasis, it never appears with a phonetic complement.

We argue that when the writing of the omens became more logographic, the sign di was adapted to write ṣiḫḫu – the cyst, which, as demonstrated, was circle-like or bubble-like in its appearance, on the infected liver. In the Middle Assyrian compendia, we usually find di alone. But already in one Middle Assyrian collection (KAL 5 56 rev. 16; see above), and certainly in the SB extispicy materials, a phonetic complement -ḫu was added. This was done to distinguish it from šulmu mark, perhaps motivated at first to avoid ambiguity, since the ṣiḫḫu and the šulmu can appear in the same parts and zones of the liver. Later it became simply a scribal convention. However, di does not equal *ṣuḫ; it is a phonetically empty sign, and with the phonetic complement or indicator it stands for ṣiḫḫu.