We study the effects of academic rank using data on the entire population of children enrolled in Aberdeen's (Scotland) primary schools in 1962. Exploiting quasi-random variation in peer group composition, we estimate the causal impact of rank on academic performance, non-cognitive development, parental investment, and long-term outcomes. A higher rank improves achievement on the high-stakes 11-plus exam and enhances internalizing skills — traits linked to self-concept and confidence — suggesting that rank effects operate primarily through students’ self-perception. Using a follow-up survey conducted 40 years later, we find that rank raises educational attainment, particularly for girls, but long-term income gains emerge only among boys. The gender gap in long-run effects likely reflects historical constraints on women’s access to higher education and skilled employment during this period.

Can goal-setting improve student attendance? We implemented a randomized controlled trial involving over 1,000 undergraduate students at a UK public university. Treated students were asked to set an attendance goal for the spring term of their second academic year, received weekly text message reminders and feedback on their progress, and had the option to enter a commitment contract that withheld part of their compensation unless the goal was met. The intervention led to a positive and statistically significant increase in lecture attendance, equivalent to approximately one additional lecture attended over the term. Students who opted into the commitment contract exhibited an even larger increase — roughly double the average effect. While the rise in attendance did not translate into improved academic performance, we find evidence that treated students became more interested in their field of study. We show that goal-setting strategies are particularly effective for students with poor planning ability.