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Roller Coaster Operations and Safety
This site will answer the following questions:
What kind of processes do amusement park rides use?
How does world building change/play into ride operations?
How do parks balance ride enjoyment and safety?
What technologies open new operation opportunities on rides?
How do amusement parks optimize queue times and operations?
What are some operational success factors for coasters?
To navigate this site with ease, please use the table of contents here on the home page. This will take you directly to the information that correlates with the mentioned above questions. There is also the Example and Research page, which has more information on rides used as examples, further details, sources, and more information you may find interesting!
Basic Coaster Operations
Basic Coaster Operations
A roller coaster is usually made up of 4-5 different processes.
The Launch/Crest
Ride Dynamics
Block Sections
Final brake & Return
Some coasters (especially more old-fashioned ones) will have a different first step, called the ascent. This is where a chain or other mechanism hauls the train up a steep incline, in order to reach the height necessary for the crest. In newer coasters there are newer mechanisms that make this step optional, in which case the first step would be an immediate launch.
Now there are a lot of different roller coasters, and rides in general, so in order to keep things relatively simple, the main processes a coaster has to keep in mind is:
The mechanical system for the trains/track
The launch/acceleration system
The brake system
The mechanical system for a coaster is how it is designed and built. Some coasters have wooden tracks with steel beams, while others have tubular rails. Knowing the mechanical systems behind a coaster is crucial for its design. Design also varies per coaster. There are inverted or suspended coasters (the track is above the train), water rides/coasters (track is submerged/chain operated), and some rides are built for speed, while others for their unique loops or turns.
As an example, think about Lagoon. Some rides like Cannibal and Wicked have stouter trains, with more extreme drops and turns. Other rides like Spider have less extreme turns, but a mechanism that spins the train.
Coasters at Lagoon (from left to right: Cannibal, Colossus, Bombora)
The launch or acceleration system for coasters also varies widely. Many newer coasters use electromagnet acceleration, which is much smoother, and doesn't rely on an ascent like older coasters. Other forms and systems that can be in place are chain, pneumatic (air pressure), hydraulic (oil/gas pressure), and lesser used systems like flywheels, catapults, and friction wheels. The system behind a coaster is often determined by the intended use for a ride. For younger audiences, a mix of chain lifts and hydraulics are common, while for older and more risk-taking demographics, electromagnet and hydraulics are becoming more popular. Pneumatics are interesting because they are often used in tandem with another system, like hydraulic or electromagnet in order to offer an enhancement of the experience, like smoother braking.
An example of this combination of acceleration systems is the Dwarf Mine Train in Disney Florida. This ride uses chain lifts for the main track, but a pneumatic system for movement within the train, or the rocking of individual carts throughout the coaster. The video below is a ride-through where this tilting is very visible (as well as the chain lifts), with photos of electromagnet and hydraulic launch systems on the left hand side.
The final process is the braking/management process. There are two main brake systems used in coasters: Block brakes and trim brakes.
Block brakes are on every single coaster, and are required at the end of a ride to allow riders a safe exit.
Trim brakes are more cosmetic. They are used to slow a train in the ride, either to build suspense, prepare for a drop, or in case a train is moving too quickly. They can also be used as an emergency stop.
These brakes are programmed to understand where and when they need to brake. For example, trim brakes are used to "trim" the speed on a train to keep it at a safe level. They are used frequently, especially in coasters where many drops and accelerations are gravity based, and thus fluctuate slightly by car. Block brakes are programmed to completely stop the train within certain circumstances, most commonly at the end of a ride.
Now there are management systems for these brakes that help to keep the ride moving. One important aspect of this is block zones, which we'll cover in detail a little bit later in Safety and Thrills.
Some management systems for monitoring trains include RFID (used for monitoring riders and restraints specifically), Allen-Bradley (common system for brakes), and other PLC systems.
Operational Success Factors
Operational Success Factors
Roller coasters are built to entertain and be enjoyed, however in order to be built they require a lot of capital. It is for this reason they are often built within amusement parks. Amusement parks have a few reasons for building coasters.
It enhances the park portfolio
Draws a specific target market into the park
Keeps consumers entertained and in the park longer
Decreases congestion (to a point)
Having a broad park portfolio is essential to park operations, as it draws in multiple groups of people. Think about the last time you visited a theme park, was there a "kiddy ride" section or group of rides? What about thrill rides? Water rides? Theme parks diversify their rides because it means there is more to see in the park, and more people that could enjoy it. Roller coasters are an essential part of that, as they are the first thing you think of when someone says amusement park.
With those objectives in mind, there are a few key factors or success markers for roller coasters. The first is the safety score, or amount of injuries or hazards on the ride. Safety is always the number one concern for the management, as a safe ride is one that can stay open, even if it isn't the most popular. If a ride has a lot of incidents surrounding it, no matter how popular the ride, management sometimes must shut it down.
An example of this was Dragon Challenge in Universal Studios Florida. While the ride was extremely popular for its first decade or so of operation, it was known for loose articles falling off the ride, which in the nature of the ride became dangerous fast. "Dueling Dragons" as it was originally called, featured two inverted coasters that would ride simultaneously and have "close" calls near one another throughout their tracks. With loose articles of clothing, and some guests having closer calls than others, this ride was eventually changed into alternating coasters. This change, while safer, made the ride much less popular, especially when Universal began to require lockers and a metal detector to avoid more loose items on the ride.
Due to the concerns with safety in the past and the lack of popularity with previously mentioned decisions, Dragon Challenge was torn down and replaced with Hagrid's Motorbike Adventure.
A ride-through of Dueling Dragons in its "glory days" before these changes is shown here on the left. The main draw and popularity of the ride is clear with the video showing the close calls that appear several times throughout the track.
Another key factor of success is the throughput. This is how many riders can get on the coaster within an hour (also referred to as the "hourly capacity" by the industry). A high throughput means the queue takes less time, and allows more guests to get on the ride within the day. One main factor in roller coaster design is designing it so that the throughput ratio is high for the ride, especially if it is going to be a main attraction. Keeping in Islands of Adventure in Universal, Velocicoaster, the main attraction of the dinosaur themed section, can load up to 1,745 people an hour (average 1,344). That is a very efficient operation, as each train only holds 24 riders, meaning a train must leave the station (meaning unload and reload) every 56 seconds.
This means if Velocicoaster is running the entire time the park is open, it could theoretically have 20,500 riders in a single day! That is a lot of riders, and keeping queue times low keeps people in the park longer.
While not every coaster could or should have this high of a capacity, it is important to note that when it comes to high ratios the Velocicoaster isn't even close. Gemini in Cedar Point has a theoretical capacity of 3,300 an hour. Because roller coasters are usually a main selling point for amusement parks, it's important that the ride loads fast enough that those who wish to ride will get the chance within park hours.
Hand in hand with this metric is the load time. This is how fast riders are on the ride and ready. This directly impacts the hourly capacity, and depending on the type of ride, may or may not be applicable. If a ride uses constant motion for loading and unloading (guests hop on and off without a separate "load time"), then the hourly capacity is guaranteed and the load time is not applicable. An example of this type of ride is the Haunted Mansion, which has a capacity of 2,620 riders per hour (the highest capacity in Disneyland!), but no load time, as the buggies are constantly moving at a slow consistent pace for loading and unloading.
There is a fourth and final metric that is crucial to coaster operation, which is popularity. If a coaster is not popular, or if the throughput is so high it becomes inefficient (aka not enough riders to justify capacity), then the ride can become a liability. Referring back to Dragon Challenge, this is a metric that ride failed, which is one of the reasons for its replacement. After the multiple changes to the original ride structure (no more "dueling" coasters, change in theme, lockers required), and with neighboring rides with better theming and no crushed dreams, Dragon Challenge became unpopular, which with its high throughput time, meant the queue was almost always empty.
A ride can have the best throughput imaginable, but if no one wants to ride, then it doesn't mean anything, making this arguably the most important success factor. Load times can be engineered and improved, throughputs are designed, but popularity is something that is entirely dependent on the riders. This is why ride enjoyment is such a huge factor to consider when designing and building a coaster.
World Building and Theming
World Building and Theming
Now that you have a better understanding of some of what goes into creating a coaster and what makes it successful, it's important to understand why some coasters have themes or world-building, and what that offers to the attraction.
As previously covered, one of the most important metrics for coasters is their popularity, and how much people enjoy the ride. One of the ways roller coasters boost this popularity is through theming and world-building.
Many amusement parks will incorporate themes across their rides and attractions in order to have a more cohesive stage. If the theming of a park is done correctly, it can help to get the consumer lost in the wonder and excitement of the park, and help them loose track of time. Through both of those avenues, consumers have been proven to spend more. Because of this, amusement, or theme parks, take their world-building and themes in rides very seriously. Take Disney for example. Disney has built their empire of theme parks through consistent theming and attractions that fit said themes. They theme in zones, for example, Pixar Pier in California. By theming the rides and attractions in that area around Pixar, it draws more people and consumers into the area. Because of this zone theme, the rides also need those storytelling elements.
There are a few different ways that rides and coasters can show theming.
Color and palate
Storylines
Queue information
Audio/Visual presentation
Having a similar color theme across a zone can help link emotions and thoughts between rides or in the queue. Toy Story Mania on Pixar Pier is an excellent example of theming in this area, and the others. The colors are bright and cheery, similar to the film the ride is based on. This ride also has a storyline within Toy Story, making it a competition between riders to see who reaches the highest score. The way they present this storyline is through queue information and style, having everything sized up/to scale with the films, and including relevant information on the walls of the queue and props. Finally, within the ride itself, there is audio from the characters describing the story and what to do, as well as visual cues showing what is relevant to the plot or rider. By combining all these elements, Toy Story Mania has achieved a cohesive, well-thought out ride, that is not only entertaining, but memorable.
Now in comparison, think of another Disney zone, Chester & Hester's Dino-rama in Animal Kingdom. This area is very poorly themed. While it has an idea behind it (dinosaur carnival), it lacks any structure or world-building. The colors don't hold a specific theme, and while the characters are iconic(?), the area lacks an authentic feel, and as such, has not been popular for quite a while, and Disney has closed down the attractions and food located there. It is scheduled for official closure this upcoming January (2025). The two smaller images are rides from Chester & Hester's Dino-rama, while the larger one is the queue for Toy Story Mania.
Now not all coasters need precise theming like Toy Story Mania, however a little theming can go a long way in making a coaster memorable. An example of low theming on the ride itself, but positive world-building and presence is the Incredicoaster, also on Pixar Pier. This ride does not have a large interactive queue or game mechanic like Toy Story Mania, but through consistent color coordination and light usage, and the Incredibles soundtrack playing in the train during the ride, it is more memorable and enjoyable for guests.
Theming can also influence ride operations and construction. Theme parks can be known as narrative nodes (or hubs), as there is a lot of individual theming and narrative inside of the broad overall park. Because rides are smaller components of the park, rides are often constructed with a specific theme or idea in mind. Keeping a ride running smoothly largely depends on what type of ride it is, which usually directly results from its theming. An example of this is Disney's Animal Kingdom. All of the rides within are themed around some type of animal or nature ip, and because of that they are developed in specific ways. If Mount Everest was not themed, it likely would not include a lot of the unique track elements that arise because of that theming.
By understanding the theme and beyond that, the narrative, it is easier to understand what makes a ride unique and engaging, while still continuing its operations.
Within this same vein, the narrative discourse of a ride has been shown to make the queuing process feel less exhaustive. Immersive experiences in the queue are much easier to implement when there is an ip or storyline behind the ride, and can keep riders' focus off of the wait time.
Optimizing Queueing in the Operation
Optimizing Queueing in the Operation
Queues and wait times are a large barrier that roller coasters face. While being popular is one of the most crucial elements of a coaster's success, you may recall that two of the four metrics were focused on queue speed and efficiency. Moving a queue is a very high priority for coasters, as it lets more people get on the ride.
As previously mentioned, one way to lessen the impact of a queue (and the impatience of its inhabitants) is through storytelling and theming. Queues are a necessary evil, as a ride cannot physically accommodate everyone at once.
Most rides rely on high throughput times to work through the queue at a faster pace, which has proven to be very effective. Other parks are utilizing virtual queues in their most popular rides. For example, Rise of the Resistance in Disney used a virtual queue from its opening until September 2021 due to the popularity of the ride, and impossibility of fitting all interested parties in a physical queue. This virtual queue allowed riders to come in waves or windows throughout the day, without overwhelming the queuing system.
This system does have flaws though. For one this online queue could not hold the entire attendance of the park, so in the morning there would be what amounted to a lottery for a reservation time. For the park-goers that did not manage to acquire a "Boarding Group" (usually over half the park), they would not be able to ride this ride at all.
Disney has gone away with virtual queues, and instead added Lightning Lanes to this ride. Lightning Lanes, Genie+, FastPass, or Express Passes, are all one time use passes to skip through the majority of the standby (or main) queue for a coaster. Most coasters will have one of these express lanes, as they allow the amusement park hosting the ride to gain more profit per passenger.
These passes create another queue that is historically shorter, and has boarding preference at the loading station. While this makes the queuing process much faster for a select few, as a whole this system has proven to make queues much slower on average. This is because the main standby is put on hold for every person in the pay-to-play line. Historically, Fast Passes in Disney were given for free to every guest in the park (3 at a time). This evened the playing field, as riders would shoot to the front of the line on the rides they cared about, and suffer slightly longer queue times in the rides they didn't have passes for. While this still increased wait times, the time was less felt, as riders were advancing faster through other queues. Now that these are pay operated, and there are more people in queues within parks than ever, it is becoming a more significant issue.
Beyond more advanced queuing systems like virtual and line passes, there are more general ways to enhance the queueing experience. Mini-games and scavenger hunts are common ways to distract future riders from the long times, and in hotter climates like California and Florida, misting fans and air conditioned areas feel more like a break from the heat and less like a wait for a ride.
Another strategy some rides have implemented is queue breakout rooms. These rooms separate the queue into two or more parts, which not only offers more chance for storytelling and exposition, but makes the queue feel shorter and separated. An example of this is the Tower of Terror. This ride splits the queue between the exterior/lobby of the hotel, and the "basement" through an elevator room with exposition about the hotel's existence. By splitting these two queues, it not only allows two separate immersive areas that draw attention, but also makes the wait feel shorter, as it is two separate lines. This is something the Haunted Mansion has also implemented as a way to section off people from the queue.
Overall, there are many ways that queues are being optimized, and while they all have pros and cons, the queue still persists.
Virtual queues may end up being the "future" of lines for coasters, simply due to the space required for a queue, however the only way to continue optimizing queue operations is to continue to try new things, and see which promotes the most happy customers.
Technologies Changing the Game
Technologies Changing the Game
There are a lot of processes behind coasters and because of that new technology is being developed every day to help with these operations. From streamlining capacity to more safety measures, technology has been changing the way new coasters are built and run.
Some forms of new technology have been mentioned across this website before, such as virtual queues, however there are lots of technologies allowing improvements in this field beyond that.
Some of these technologies include:
Block zones and PLC Systems
Queuing technology
Track enhancements
Restraints
As mentioned in our overview of coaster processes, blocks are used as brakes for a coaster system. A block zone is an area that has a block brake at the beginning and end. The rule of thumb (and law) is that for every train on the track, there needs to be one more block zone, so that trains are never in the same zone. This is so in the case of an emergency, there is always a brake between the trains. While this technology has been around for a very long time, something that has allowed it to progress is PLC systems. These systems track exactly when a train passes into a new zone, and tracks all the trains at the same time. It can also automatically implement these blocks in order to stop a train before it enters an occupied zone. The reason this technology is so important is because it allows for many more trains to be on tracks than before. Now rides like Hagrid's Motorbike Adventure can have up to 12 trains running simultaneously. That is a lot of trains, and that many operating at once increases the throughput level exponentially. Where before a ride like Incredicoaster would only run 2 of its 6 trains due to needing a larger lead between, now with PLC technology it can run 3 trains, with three block zones and a loading zone. Below is Space Mountain's block zones as an example, with both tracks each on average holding 13 trains at a time.
It is important to note that PLC is really changing the game on coasters coming out. More traditional coasters often do not have more than two to three block zones, so having PLC implemented would not offer much more capacity. Because there needs to be one more block zone than trains on the track, those older coasters are already at their max with one or two trains, and the investment necessary to set up the system is often implemented, as an attendant can monitor both trains.
Another enhancement in technology is with the queue. Earlier it was mentioned that mini-games and scavenger hunts have become common in queues. What has allowed this is the increase in technology. Disney is the king in this area, with their app called Disney Play. Riders with this app can activate themed games on their phones while in certain queues. These games usually relate to the queue at hand, and can at times include physical elements on the queue. An example of this is Space Mountain. Space Mountain's queue games on this app include a scavenger hunt to find "all 21 alien phrases" within Space Mountain's queue. This keeps riders aware of movement in the queue and moving forward, without gathering the negative emotions from the long wait time. Technology like motion capture has also been invested in queues for games to help future riders pass the time.
Pictures from the Space Mountain online app and physical queue gameplay. Motion capture crabs from the Little Mermaid ride above.
Track enhancements are another large technological innovation in recent years. One such is the flip track. This track changes once a train has gone over it once to a new piece, which connects to the track and the train runs over to go to a new section of the coaster. This is mainly used on coasters that use the backwards function, such as Hagrid's and Expedition Everest. While Everest has the old form of these, Hagrid's has the newest innovation. These tracks swap fast and secure enough that they change while the train is still moving, unlike in Everest where the train is paused and reverses after the rail is secure. This lightning fast lane change is a new feat of technology, and allows for a much broader scope of rides to exist.
Another track enhancement that is being more widely used is multiple launches. Yet again Hagrid's is an excellent example of this. Most coasters have one launch or crest, the initial acceleration, then they rely on gravity for much of the track. Hagrid's, using electromagnet fins in the track, is able to have 6 accelerations (and a mini-initial launch). These fins are relatively new compared to the older form of electromagnet acceleration, which was plates on the track. These fins are also adjustable, so they only accelerate the train the exact amount needed for the "optimal" speed in the next section.
The final area where there have been significant enhancements is restraints. There are lots of versions of restraints in coasters, and no coaster has no restraints, even if it is just a simple lap bar. There are several technologies that enhance this aspect, and keep riders safer than they would be otherwise. One is RFID. This is used in park enhancement (Magic Bands) like photo-passes, and now in safety. For Hagrid's, RFID is used once attendants have verified the restraints are properly fastened. This is different than most rides, which have a computer automated system that only engages the ride once all seats are properly fastened. Having RFID speeds up the process in this ride though. By having the safety check engage the all clear, it means that the attendant does not have to fasten each restraint. That sounds counterintuitive, however many attendants have extra time taken up by fastening empty seats. Because there are odd numbers of parties, a seat usually ends up empty on a couple trains. By taking away the time necessary to fasten and check that restraint, this coaster is able to keep operations moving quickly, and increase the throughput time.
A better understanding of what restraints are needed at what speed is also gaining more traction. While in the past, any "intense" (i.e. went upside down) coaster need over the shoulder restraints, this is no longer the case. Now coasters have a myriad of options to choose from, and even a resident coaster at Lagoon, Cannibal, is able to use a lap-only restraint despite having complete inversion at several points.
In conclusion, there are a lot of technologies enhancing the way roller coasters are run, increasing efficiency and safety.
Balancing Safety and Thrills
Balancing Safety and Thrills
Safety is the top metric for roller coasters, and the main thing they are built to be (other than fun). Because of this, safety can largely influence what style a coaster is, as well as the operations behind it. An example of this is block zones. Having lots of block zones means lots of trains, however the more trains on a track, the more likely a cascade is. A cascade is when trains are forced to stop throughout the ride at the end of the block zones, due to a stoppage further up. This can be something like a handicapped rider, or a problem with a restraint. A cascade, while safe, causes unnecessary panic for riders, and significantly diminishes the ride experience. Because of this, many coasters will experiment to determine their optimal range. Even though Hagrid's Motorbike Adventure could theoretically have 12 trains on the track, they usually only run 10 at a time, as 11 and 12 the timing for the trains launching is very precise, with much more frequent cascading.
Above are several different control panels for different coaster types. Notice how they all have some form of button or color coding to differentiate functions.
Consoles are designed to make the action that needs to be taken more intuitive. This means that similar rides will have similar consoles, so that an operator can know the general area they need to look for a control right off the bat. There are also safety features like the E-stop, or emergency stop. However it is important to keep in mind that E-stops are not always the right course of action (~50% of the time they are the correct procedure). Most times when there is an issue on the coaster, an E-stop should be a last resort, as it is a very abrasive stop on the riders, and can cause other operation problems. Newer monitoring and computer systems are helping in this regard as well. Having more concrete block zones, and better braking sensors and protocol has prevented many scenarios in which an E-stop would otherwise need to be used.
Another form of safety is the restraints used on rides. There are a myriad of restraints, from lap bars to over the shoulder harnesses, and each is designed based on the acceleration and thrills associated with the ride. By customizing restraints, it allows rides to fulfill a much wider range than if there was a law that all rides must include lap bar restraints. This is another way coasters will balance safety with fun. Sometimes a coaster will be developed just on the edge of what is acceptable for a certain type of restraint, or use a more unique restraint to add to the thrill factor. Take Cannibal in Lagoon. This coaster uses a lap restraint, unlike many other coasters with its ride scope which use shoulder restraints. This adds to the thrill for many passengers, as they feel the restraint is "new" and therefore not as trustworthy, despite being just as safe.
Along with this, as previously mentioned many rides will have a computer monitoring restraints, and will not launch until all restraints have been fastened, which may slow down the loading process but will increase safety measures.
More basic things to keep in mind with safety is the coaster design. Coasters are designed to safely excite people, and as such, have limits put upon the ride. There's a reason not every coaster has a double loop, and its because the calculations between thrill and safety are important. This includes things like calculating the max speed, gravity on tracks, and how many seats should be on each train! An example of this is in Universal Studios. Their newest thrill coasters have a lower train capacity than older thrill rides in the area (24 seats). This is because Universal has done research into the thrills they aim to provide, and determined that even though throughput will be lower on these rides, the ride itself is able to offer more thrills in a safer manner.
This is also why coasters will diversify ride portfolios. Having rides that appeal to large masses of people with fast hourly capacity can help balance more extreme coasters and keep them from having issues with overloading.
Having a focus on safety allows roller coasters to be designed to be fun, with low incident rates.
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