Theoxenia in Classical Literature

Written by Steph Reed

The Latin GCSE Verse set text, Baucis and Philemon, is taken from Metamorphoses. In this epic poem, Ovid retells myths from Greece and Rome, stretching from the creation of the world to the deification of Julius Caesar. Baucis and Philemon are an elderly couple who scratch out a humble but happy living in the marshy lowlands of Phrygia (now central Turkey). When two strangers arrive at their door, the couple do not hesitate to welcome them, despite their age and poverty. Ovid lovingly describes their efforts: setting up a “couch”’ (a pile of grass with their best cloths – still “old and worn” - thrown over it), lighting a fire, and offering up all the food and wine they have stored in their meagre larder. Alongside this they provide smiles, cheerful spirits, and lively conversation.

The old couple become nervous when they notice that the wine bowl keeps refilling itself. They realise they have been playing host to gods in disguise. Jupiter and Mercury have come to the town disguised as mortals and have been turned away from every other house.

As reward for their hospitality, Baucis and Philemon are saved from a flood that wipes out the rest of the town (no second chances with the Olympians). They are also granted their hearts’ desire: to be guardians of the gods’ temple and to die at the same time, so they never have to be apart. In fact, the gods go one better: in their final moments Baucis and Philemon are turned into trees, standing side by side for eternity. If this doesn’t seem much of a treat, keep in mind that after death almost everyone, no matter how well-behaved they’ve been in life, goes to the gloomy Underworld and slowly forgets their identity. As the Greeks and Romans believed nature was full of immortal spirits, Baucis and Philemon are effectively being turned into gods.

Baucis and Philemon reveal the importance of what the Romans called hospitium and the Greeks called xenia. Usually translated as ‘hospitality’, this refers to the divine right of guests to be treated well, and the responsibilities that hosts and guests had to one another.

According to the laws of xenia, when a xenos (‘stranger’ or ‘foreigner’, and the root of our word ‘xenophobia’) arrived at the door seeking help, the host was obliged to provide for their needs. They had to offer food, drink, comfort (such as a bath, clean clothes, a comfortable seat or a bed for the night) and even entertainment. No questions could be asked about the stranger’s name or business until such needs were met. In return, a guest had to behave well and not become a burden by overstaying their welcome. When the guest parted from their host, they would often exchange ‘guest-gifts’, establishing a connection between their families that could last for generations. These rules were overseen by Zeus Xenios: in one of his many roles, Zeus (or Jupiter) was the patron of strangers and beggars. Many myths and legends revolve around violations of the laws of xenia and the anger of the gods which this inevitably provoked.

Why was xenia so important to the Greeks? In practical terms, it meant people could give and receive help with less fear that the stranger they had just met would murder or rob them. In religious terms, the story of Baucis and Philemon gives us the answer: because you could never be sure that the beggar on your doorstep was not a god in disguise. Such stories of gods testing characters’ hospitality have become known as theoxenia – hospitality shown to a theos, or god.

Perhaps the most famous exploration of xenia in Classical literature is in Homer’s Odyssey. On his long journey home from the Trojan War (itself started by a violation of xenia: Paris’ abduction of Menelaus’ wife Helen while a guest in his house), Odysseus is a guest of many different hosts. Some are great, like the Phaeacians, who provide for all of Odysseus’ needs, put on extravagant banquets and entertainment and even give him a lift home with a boatload of treasure. Some are terrible, like the Cyclops Polyphemus, who traps Odysseus and his companions in his cave and begins eating them. Polyphemus even mocks the practice of guest-gifts by promising Odysseus the ‘gift’ of being eaten last.

However, the action of the Odyssey is started off by an act of theoxenia. The goddess Athena visits Odysseus’ son Telemachus disguised as an old family friend, Mentes. Telemachus seats his visitor on the best chair and has food and wine brought out, while keeping Athena/Mentes away from the Suitors – local noblemen who have invaded Odysseus’ palace and are eating all his food and trying to marry his wife (definitely bad xenia). Athena gives Telemachus the gift of her advice on how to deal with the Suitors (she is the goddess of wisdom after all), as well as new hope and courage. We can imagine how different things would be if he had not treated her well.

Homer plays with the tradition of theoxenia when Odysseus himself arrives home, disguised as a beggar by Athena. Like a god, Odysseus tests people.  Odysseus’ loyal servant, Eumaeus, gives Odysseus a rich meal despite being a poor slave, and is promised great rewards once Odysseus has reclaimed his rightful place. The Suitors, already violating xenia, make things even worse by mistreating the ‘beggar’ when he comes to the palace. All, of course, are killed by Odysseus once he reveals his real identity, much like the wicked townspeople in Ovid’s story.

Along with so many other ideas and values, xenia was adopted by the Romans from Greek culture and became formalised and legalistic. The rights of a hospes (‘guest’ – a person connected to a Roman citizen by hospitium) were more clearly defined. According to Cicero, hospites could even call on their hosts to represent them in court. Hospitality ties were legally binding once they had been declared and could only be dissolved by a further formal declaration.

It is unsurprising then, that the theme of hospitium appears elsewhere in Metamorphoses. Some characters, like Baucis and Philemon, are rewarded for good behaviour: for example, King Midas is granted a wish by the god Dionysus in gratitude for taking care of his friend Silenus. However, far more stories in the Metamorphoses, and Greco-Roman mythology generally, deal with the punishment of poor behaviour. For example, Lycaon does not trust the signs of Jupiter’s divinity when the god appeared openly in his kingdom (in the early days of the world when gods revealed themselves to humans undisguised). To test him, Lycaon tries to serve Jupiter human flesh and even tries to murder him while he sleeps in his palace. Jupiter brings down the roof and turns Lycaon into a wolf. This gives us the word ‘lycanthropy’ – werewolfism.

Out of all the tales of theoxenia in Metamorphoses, Baucis and Philemon have remained very popular. The couple’s Wikipedia page boasts a long list of adaptations and allusions, as well as famous paintings of the gods in their home. Perhaps their popularity is due to the comforting message of their story: that you don’t have to be a wealthy king to be a good host - and receive the reward of a ‘happy ever after’ with the love of your life.

Suggested activities

1.        Read a summary of the Odyssey. What other examples of xenia do you find in the story? Which characters show good hospitality and which are bad?

2.        Do you know any other stories which explore xenia or theoxenia from Greek or Roman mythology? Here are a few you could research:

a.        Diomedes and Glaucus

b.   Achilles and Priam

c.        Jason and the Argonauts

d.   Ixion

e.        Tantalus

3.        Read Ovid’s description of the meal Baucis and Philemon provide and compare it with Juvenal’s description of what he would serve at a dinner party (Juvenal Satire 9, lines 56-89). What similarities do you notice? What does this suggest about trends in Roman dining and hospitality?

4.        Can you think of any examples of theoxenia-style stories in other cultures or religions?

If you'd like to watch some video tutorials on the set text, please visit: https://classicalia.co.uk/latin/texts.html