The Depiction of Shiva in Sculpture

Shiva is one of the most prominent gods in the Hindu pantheon. Due to his prominence, there are a great variety of sculptures depicting him, many going back as far as the third century A.D [1]. Art in Hinduism holds great importance and is incorporated heavily into temples and sites of worship. This is due to the belief that sculptures and figures of deities are not only figural representations but that they hold the spirit of the god themself. Art is utilized in Hinduism to depict a narrative or legend through symbolism and universally understandable motifs. Shiva has nineteen different forms, or avatars, each of which has unique qualities and purposes. Some of his major avatars are Mahesha, Nataraja, Sundareshvara, and Mahakala. Despite the wide variety of avatars Shiva possesses, all of his forms have similar symbolism The most common association of Shiva is a phallic pillar, or linga, because of his status as the god of fertility and potency [2]. He is also commonly depicted with a third eye to symbolize his wisdom, and with a crescent in his hair. The use of widely understandable symbolism is a necessary component in depicting Shiva’s many dominions and avatars in sculptural representations.

Symbolism is one of the most vital aspects of Hindu art. Each avatar of Shiva has their own purpose and story. These stories are able to be deciphered through commonly repeated motifs and symbolic objects in artwork. Shiva as Lord of Dance is an 11th-century sculpture from Tamil Nadu, India, and is one of the most well-known artworks of Shiva. This sculpture is of the avatar of Shiva known as Nataraja [3]. The copper alloy used in this piece has turned a muted green hue, though hints of bronze remain. The figure is encased in a ring of fire and is standing on a small platform. He is performing the ananda-tandava, which means the dance of furious bliss [4]. He is posed in the classic “s curve” shape, formally known as the tribhanga, which adds to the dynamic energy of the sculpture. Here, Shiva is very idealized, with smooth features, which is standard in Hindu artwork [5]. His limbs are slender and long and he has a broad chest. Jewelry decorates his body from head to toe, most notably his ankles, neck, and ears. He is presenting the mudra of abhaya with his center-right hand, which symbolizes growth in intelligence and morality and the destruction of fear [6]. The Gajahasta mudra, also known as the elephant hand, is being performed by his center-left hand and it is pointed toward his foot, which symbolizes salvation [7]. Nataraja’s outer hands hold symbolic objects. In his right hand is the drum, or damaru, that is credited with creating the first sounds of the universe and in his right is a flame that represents the destruction of the universe [8]. This connects to Hindu beliefs of the cycle of death and rebirth [9]. Shiva is symbolically crushing ignorance, represented by the demon, under his right leg, and in turn, his raised left leg symbolizes escaping from ignorance [10]. The ring of fire around him is representative of Shiva Nataraja dancing to the rhythm of the cosmos [11] and is also said to act as a metaphor for spiritual transformation [12]. These symbols can be deciphered to portray the narrative of Shiva holding the position as the creator and destroyer of the universe.

One of the most infamous symbols of Shiva is the linga or lingam. Many artworks depict Shiva as a linga, or phallic figure, either abstractly, or more commonly, with his face on the pillar. One example of this is the 7th-century Kashmirian stone sculpture Linga with Face of Shiva [13]. Here, Shiva’s face is rendered with detailed, realistic features. His face is coming forth from the linga and is three-dimensional. It is a much deeper relief than other linga sculptures. He has his aforementioned third eye, large earplugs, and a crescent moon in his wavy hair. The large earplugs represent Shiva’s androgenous nature [14]. The motif of stretched or large earlobes in Hindu art has long symbolized wealth, status, or power, a symbol that is shared with Buddhist artwork [15]. One of the most universal and prominent characteristics of Shiva is his third eye. His third eye symbolizes his wisdom and power as the destroyer of the universe and the destruction of societal evils [16]. The crescent moon is a symbol that is often seen in Hindu sculptures that could be an homage to the cosmic mountain and the creation of the universe. The cosmic mountain, or Mt. Meru, is the point at which the creation of the universe takes place, and acts as the Hindu concept of the heavens [17]. This also ties into the Hindu belief that the world is repeatedly created and destroyed at the gods’ will, a duty that Shiva possesses [18]. Lingams are commonly placed in temples dedicated to Shiva, such as the Kailasanathar Temple in Karuppadithattadai, India [19]. This large worship site was built in the eighth century and is dedicated to Shiva [20]. The linga here is an example of the earlier versions of lingams, they are much more simplified and abstract than the Linga with Face of Shiva. It is a black polished stone pillar with a pointed tip and sixteen geometric sides. The lingam is the final point in the path of the temple. Each Hindu temple has its own distinct path that worshippers are meant to follow. In temples dedicated to Shiva, once at the linga, worshippers circumnavigate the shrine in honor of the god [21]. The symbolic lingam is such a powerful image to his followers that it alone is understood to be a representation of Shiva worthy of worship. The sculpture Linga with One Face of Shiva is structurally parallel to Linga with Face of Shiva, despite the former being created in Thailand [22]. Both sculptures feature the god with a third eye, a crescent moon, and stretched ears. The major difference between the sculptures is that the Thai version is a much lower relief and does not protrude from the linga as far. This connection between objects of different countries shows how universally these distinct, canonical symbols are utilized in Hinduism and how vital they are to the depiction of Shiva.

Artistic depictions of Shiva vary in their levels of energy and movement. More dynamic statues humanize Shiva and catch him in motion, while stoic, and poised depictions portray him as tranquil and serious. One dynamic statue of Shiva is Shiva Seated with Uma, an 11th-century Nepalese copper figure [23]. This sculpture captures Shiva and his wife Uma, also known as Parvati, embracing each other [24]. They are known as the divine couple, or Umamaheshvara. They sit atop a lotus flower, a symbol for purity and fertility [25], in what is known as a “posture of royal ease”, called rajalilasana [26]. The couple is adorned in similar beaded jewelry, large necklaces, and bangles. Shiva is depicted classically, with his third eye and large earplugs. He is holding a rosary in his outer right arm and is wearing a large trilobed tiara. Parvati is holding a parrot, which is a symbol of passion, and leaning into her husband [27]. She is wearing a similar tiara to Shiva, but hers is a single lobed tiara. Her hair is placed in a large bun, embellished by strands of pearls. This portrayal of the couple is very tender and humanizes the gods, while other depictions aim for a more stoic disposition. Shiva, Uma, and Their Son Skanda, an image known as the Somaskandamurti, is an 11th-century Indian sculpture [28]. Here, the deities are very posed and rigid, appearing very powerful. Once again, the couple is dressed very similarly, this time with many necklaces and robes draped across their lower half. Their son, Skanda, is dressed much simpler than his parents, reflecting his infancy. Shiva holds a deer and a battle-ax in his outer hands. He is performing the same mudra as in Shiva as Lord of Dance with his center hands, abhaya, renouncing his followers’ fear [29]. His right leg is straight down in front of him, while his left is bent upward and tucked in. Parvati reflects this posture and holds a water lily in her right hand, representing life, purity, and prosperity [30]. This sculpture captures the immense power of the Somaskandamurti through its use of erect posture and symbolism. The variations on posture and mood in depictions of Shiva are another technique Hindu artists use to depict Shiva’s various forms and natures.

Hinduism utilizes artwork to distinguish between the different avatars of Shiva. Each incarnation has its own unique characteristics and visual form. Shiva’s forms range from male to female to even animalistic. Hanuman is the eleventh incarnation of Shiva and is depicted as a monkey or in an anthropomorphic style [31]. His name comes from a Sanskrit term meaning “son of the wind” [32]. Hanuman Conversing is a rare ancient depiction of the minor deity. This piece is especially important because it is one of the few surviving depictions of Hanuman from the Chola period. The 11th-century sculpture presents the god gesturing obedience to the god Rama, an avatar of Vishnu, through raising his left hand [33]. Hanuman is known for his dedication to Rama and for being his companion [34]. This gesture also symbolizes that Hanuman is a very loyal, noble, and courageous deity. This is an anthropomorphic representation of Hanuman, with mostly a human body with only a monkey head and tail. As a call back to his role as an avatar of Shiva, Hanuman’s ears are stretched, and from them hang jhumka earrings. This sculpture comes from a larger collection that encompasses many deities. The collection is displayed in temples used by Vaishnavas, a denomination of Hinduism, and in South Indian worship festivals [35]. Similar to many other Hindu sculptures, Hanuman is positioned on top of a lotus flower platform. The piece is very dynamic, and once again he is posed in the tribhanga style. This energy symbolizes Hanuman’s vitality and his position as a loyal, energetic pet of sorts [36]. He acts as the stand-in for Rama’s followers and many of the myths and legends associated with him convey this, which is why his humanity is a key factor in this portrayal. It is possible that this copper alloy sculpture was originally coated in red powder, as legends describe Hanuman coating himself in red powder in dedication to Rama. This tale comes from the idea of rasayan which refers to the connection between a deity and their followers, which is represented by the color red [37]. Shiva’s avatar of Hanuman is an example of the vast range of his incarnations. Even though the avatars have their own unique mythos and dominions, it does not take away from their connection to Shiva. If anything it demonstrates Shiva’s versatility and power. The symbols and formal elements associated with each avatar are important to decoding their identity and purpose.

Shiva is understandably one of the most well-known Hindu gods due to his wide array of incarnations and dominions. There is very little in the Hindu mythos that is untouched by Shiva because all of the deities and legends are so deeply entwined together. Sculptures of Shiva are the best representation of him as a god to analyze because of their spiritual value in Hinduism. They are able to be understood by later generations and historians due to their symbolism that is used throughout Hindu culture. By having these repeated symbols, Hinduism becomes a much more whole and consistent religion with common beliefs despite differences in generation and geography. Even though there are different denominations within the religion, the various groups have created and maintained a uniform visual language of sorts. These sculptures reveal the ideas and purposes behind Shiva and other deities and give an insight into the ancient worshipers’ practices.

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3. Shiva as Lord of Dance (Nataraja). Metmuseum.org.
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