Consolidation and Fragmentation

In earlier chapters we have seen how ancient civilisations emerged and declined, kingdoms were followed by empires that disintegrated into fiefdoms over time. Thus, the consolidation of the Mauryan Empire was accompanied by the spread of Buddhism, and this was later followed by the fragmentation into multiple kingdoms that later were merged together in the Gupta Empire and the Golden Age for art, music and literature.

The Guptas gave way to numerous clans, from Chandelas to Tomaras in the north, and Chalukyas to Rashtrakutas in the south. These clans then fought with each other for supremacy. The instability paved the way for invaders from the west who came for plunder. The Ghaznavid and Ghori invaders left behind their slaves who then emerged as Mamluk, Khilji, Tughlak, and Lodhi dynasties in the north, while the Vijayanagara Empire consolidated its rule in the south.

Finally, the Mughals came both as conquerors and settlers and found an empire that lasted for three centuries and gave birth to new amalgams of syncretic culture, language, art, architecture, music and dance. They too could not manage the vast territories they ruled and were forced to cede ground to new waves of traders and merchants who sailed over the oceans with their armies from the European seafaring nations. These traders provided the new conflicting forces that took the process of consolidation and fragmentation to new heights as they competed with each other for power and territory.