From ancient time the history of mercury has been connected with that of the medicine and chemistry. Mercury therefore contributes to the history of science throughout times. Knowledge of cinnabar (HgS) is traced back to ancient Assyria and Egypt, but also to China. The Greek philosophers were the initiators of theoretical science. The idea of the four elements, earth, air, water and fire, was introduced mainly by Empedocles and Aristotle in the 5th and 4th century BC. The theory encouraged the hope of transmuting metal to gold. The early development of practical alchemy is obscure, but some hints are given in the encyclopedia compiled by Zosimos about 300 A.D. in Alexandria. It also includes the invention of equipment such as stills, furnaces and heating baths. Medical treatment is described by Pliny and Celsus, e.g. the use of cinnabar in trachoma and venereal diseases. When the Arabs learned Greek alchemy by the Nestorians, they introduced or improved chemical equipments and new chemicals were obtained such as sublimate (HgCl2), different salts, acids, alkaline carbonates and metal oxides. The first recorded account of animal experimentation on the toxicity of mercury comes from Rhazes (al-Razi) in the 9th century and in the 11th century Avicenna (Ibn Sina) had the foresight to recommend the use of mercury only as an external remedy, and quicksilver ointments were used by the Arabs in the treating of skin diseases. In the medieval west scientific experiments were forbidden since the interpretation of the world order should not be changed. Greek and Arabic medicine and alchemy were therefore authoritative and the breakthrough in scientific inventions first appeared after the introduction of the Renaissance. The Renaissance medicine included ancient medicine as well as "modern medicine", based on iatrochemistry, and this chemical approach was introduced by Paracelsus. The medicine included sulphur and salts or oxides of for instance mercury, copper, iron, antimony, bismuth and lead. Most important was mercury when the outbreak of syphilis appeared in Europe at the end of the 15th century. The Arabian quicksilver ointment was remembered and used for the treatment of syphilis, but the treatment also included pills and ointments of sublimate and calomel (Hg2Cl2). The breakthrough in science was the discovery of oxygen by Priestley in the late 18th century. Priestley heated the oxide of mercury and examined the gas and thereafter Lavoisier recognized that combustion involves oxidation. All this led to a new understanding of respiration and furthermore established the basis of modern chemistry. The apothecaries of the 19th and 20th century showed many colourful mercurials as calomel, sublimate, cinnober, oxides of mercury and mercury. Calomel pills were used in acute and chronic diseases and furthermore as a diuretic drug before the organomercurials appeared in the 1920s. Skin diseases were treated with ointments or plasters of the mercurials or quicksilver. Antiseptics were introduced by Semmelweis hand-washing with chlorinated water before deliveries in obstetrics and by Lister's antiseptic ritual with carbolic acid during surgical operations. Also organomercurial "antiseptics" were used but unfortunately these agents were bacteriostatic rather than bacteriocidal and allergic contact dermatitis has been observed. Today the problems are solved by sterilization and aseptic conditions. Penicillin appeared in the 1940s and chlorothiazide in 1957 and new effective agents have taken over in the treatment of diseases with mercurials.

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China. It has been described as pseudoscientific, with the majority of its treatments having no known mechanism of action.[1][2]

The Encyclopedia Of Medical Breakthroughs And Forbidden Treatments Free Download

tag_hash_106 🔥 https://urlin.us/2yjXDB 🔥

Under modern Japanese medical law, it is possible for doctors to perform acupuncture and massage, but because there is a separate law regarding acupuncture and massage, these treatments are mainly performed by massage therapists, acupuncturists, and moxibustion practitioners.[250]

Little detailed information is available regarding the hospitals as teaching institutions. We have accounts of teaching at certain hospitals, such as the `Adudi hospital in Baghdad, but how many hospitals had such formal classes is not known. Clinical training at bedside in a hospital, whether as an apprentice or through formal instruction, was, however, a part of medical learning for a substantial number of formally trained physicians. In the medical writings, such as the encyclopedia by al-Majusi, there was frequent encouragement of students to acquire clinical training.

Animal experimentation, also called animal testing, has contributed to many important scientific and medical discoveries. Breakthroughs include the development of many antibiotics, insulin therapy for diabetes, modern anesthesia, vaccines for whooping cough and other diseases, the use of lithium in mental health treatments, and the discovery of hormones. Studies using animals have also led to the development of new surgical techniques and medical devices. Scientists use animals for testing the safety of chemical products, known as toxicology testing, and for evaluating the effects of radiation and biological and chemical processes. Unlike field research, which involves observing animals in their natural habitats, animal experimentation takes place at laboratories in universities, medical schools, government facilities, and commercial facilities such as those run by pharmaceutical and cosmetics manufacturers. Experiments on animals can involve testing drugs and other substances as well as performing behavioral tests such as those conducted on dogs by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov in the early twentieth century.

In the following viewpoint, the American Anti-Vivisection Society (AAVS) declares that experimentation on animals is not a valid means of testing treatments for human disease. The AAVS maintains that animal studies do not reliably predict human outcomes, that most drugs that appear promising in animal studies go on to fail in human clinical trials, and that reliance on animal experimentation can delay discovery. In the opinion of the AAVS, animals are used in medical research more from tradition than from evidence of scientific value. The AAVS is a nonprofit animal advocacy organization dedicated to ending experimentation on animals in research, testing, and education.

In 2008 there were 129 accredited medical schools granting doctor of medicine (M.D.) degrees and 25 colleges granting doctor of osteopathic medicine (D.O.) degrees in the United States. M.D.s, also known as allopathic physicians, treat disease mainly with drugs, surgery, and other well-established remedies. D.O.s, like their M.D. colleagues, are fully licensed medical physicians and surgeons who practice in most clinical specialties. Osteopathic medicine emphasizes the interrelationships of bodily structures and functions, and its practitioners receive special training in manipulative treatments of the musculoskeletal system. 0852c4b9a8

nena 99 red balloons free mp3 download

free download pk songs ek tha tiger

free downloadable nursing books