Conlang - A constructed language.
Glossopoeia - Fancier way of saying conlang.
Natlang - A natural language.
Artlang - A conlang made for aesthetic and phonetic pleasure.
Engelang - Engineered conlang to test how languages work.
Auxlang - Auxiliary conlang for the sake of communication between different nationalities.
General
Lexicon - A full list of a conlang or language's words with definitions.
Phonology
Consonant - A sound of which breath is partly obstructed.
Vowel - A sound without stricture in the vocal tract.
Dipthong - A sound formed from combining two vowels.
Tripthong - A dipthong with three vowels.
Phonotactics - Rules governing the possible phoneme sequences in a language.
Syllable - A unit of pronunciation, usually with x amount of vowels and consonants.
Stress - Emphasis given to certain syllables.
Tone - Pitch used to convey something.
Morphology
Noun - A word that represents a physical or conceptual object.
Pronoun - A type of noun that refers to a broader subject.
Verb - A word used to describe an action, state or occurence.
Adjective - A word representing an attribute of a noun.
Adverb - An adjective for verbs.
Number - A word representing the numerical count of a noun.
Case - A way of marking nouns by function.
Affix - An addition to a word that alters its meaning.
Prefix - An affix going before a word.
Postfix - An affix going after the word.
Infix - An affix going somewhere inside a word.
Inflection - A change in the form of a word to express a grammatical function or attribute.
Agglutinative - A type of language where every inflection, or affix, has a singular meaning.
Fusional - A type of language where a single inflection may encode multiple meanings.
Isolating - A type of language without inflections or affixes.
Polysynthetic - A type of language which incorporates nouns or other roots within the verb, e.g. the Nishnaabemwin naajmiijme, meaning 'fetch food', which incorporates miijim, meaning 'food'.
Reduplication - Type of inflection where a root or part of a root is repeated, either identically or slightly altered.
Nominative - When a noun is the subject of a verb.
Accusative - When a noun is the object, or target, of a verb.
Gender - Categories based on sex, animacy, animality, or even things like size, shape, abstraction, spirituality, etcetera.
Plurality - The amount of a noun.
Honorific - The level of hierarchy (respect) of or for a noun.
Possession - Whether a noun owns another noun.
Tense - When a verb has happened.
Perfection - Whether a verb has been completed or not.
Aspect - Whether the focus is on the ongoing process of a verb, or a single action, or a habitual action, or a repeated action.
Indicative - Whether an action can be counted on, is doubtful or merely to be desired (subjunctive), or isn't happening at all (negative).
Imperative - If a verb is being ordered, or being told to (indicative).
Transitivity - Whether a verb just happen (intransitive), happening to something (transitive) or happening to the subject (reflexive).
Dynamics - Whether a verb is simply a state (static) or a change in state (dynamic).
Deference - Degree of respect between speaker and listener.
Benefactive - Whether something benefits from an action.
Personal Ending - Such as in Spanish, when a verb has an affix acting as a pronoun + verb combination.
1st Person - Referring to oneself.
2nd Person - Referring to the hearer.
3rd Person - Referring to anybody else outside of the conversation.
Proximate / Obviative - When a pronoun has ways of distinguishing multiple third-person referents. The most important subject is proximate, with every other subject being obviative.
Correlative Pronoun - Other types of pronouns that are not personal.
Interrogative Pronouns - Pronouns like which, who, what and where.
Demonstrative Pronouns - Pronouns like this, that, here and now.
Indefinite Pronouns- Pronouns like that, there, then and thus.
Quantifiers - Pronouns that denote things like some, none, every, etcetera.
Opposite - Less of a negation and more directly swapping the meaning of an adjective to it's opposite. Could also refer to un-doing a verb.
Lack / Surfeit - Whether something is lacking (-less) or full of (-ful).
Possibility - Whether something can be (-able)
Liking / Disliking - Such as (-phile) or (-phobe)
Diminutive - When an adjective is weakened in power (-ish). Opposite of this would be augmentative.
Comparative - When comparing an adjective as greater (-er)
Superlative - When comparing an adjective as the most (-est)
Syntax
Sentence Structure - The position of a subject, object and verb in a generic sentence.
Intransitive - A sentence without a subject, e.g. "The window broke."
Conjunction - A word used to link two of the same word or phrase type to act as one.
Adposition - A word that shows the role of a noun in respect to other parts of a sentence.
Determiner - A word that defines and alters the noun itself.
Phrase - A group of words, or a singular words, that acts as a singular role in the syntactic structure of a sentence.
Phrase Structure - The positions of each word type in any given phrase.
Question - A statement made that seeks to be followed by an answer. Typically also refers to yes/no/maybe questions.
Negation - When a given sentence is turned false, or declared to be 'not happening'.
Subclause - When an entire sentence acts or serves as a modifier or constituent, such as "He believes that you're crazy" or "The man who ate a horse is here."
Transformation - When elements, mainly clauses, of a sentence are re-arranged, e.g. "The man that John hit yesterday prefers beer to wine." can be seen as combining two sentences, "The man [John hit him yesterday] prefers beer to wine."
Passive - "John ran the band" into "The band was run by John"
Fronting - "John ran the band" into "The band, John runs it"
Clefting - "John runs the band" into "It's John that runs the band"
Causative - "John made [the band played Van Halen]" into "John made the band play Van Halen.
Raising - "It's easy [John runs the band]" into "It's easy for John to run the band"
Nominalization - "John ran the band" into "John's running of the band"
Interjection - Grammatically disconnected words of exclamation to convey emotion or other concepts.
Culture
Register - Styles of speech, such as when something is ceremonial, ritual, scientific, journalistic, colloquial, slang, polite, in respect to royalty, or just standard conversation. This is purely based on culture, and can change, just as how referring to someone's first name is considering "informal" while referring to someone as "Mr." or "Mrs." is considered "formal".
Poetry - A form of artistic writing that can be based on many things, such as alliteration, patterns of stress, lines of certain syllable length, etcetera.
Semantics - The branch of linguistics concerned with the meaning of language.Â
Pragmatics - How language is used in the real world, in context.
Neography
Medium - What surface is used for writing.
Ideographic - Symbols convey ideas.
Logography - Symbols convey words.
Morphological - Symbols convey grammatical components.
Syllabary - Symbols convey syllables.
Abugida - Symbols convey comsonants with vowel diacritics.
Abjad - Symbols convey consonants.
Alphabetic - Symbols convey consonants or vowels.
Featural - Symbols convey phonetic information.
Punctuation - Markings that indicate how text should be read or spoke.