Limitations of Knowledge

Modern understanding of the Universe assumes its infiniteness in time and space, as well as a continuous process of matter evolution with a potentially unlimited number of organization levels. However, our current knowledge is significantly limited, and we have access to only a small fragment of the overall picture of the universe.

Fundamental fields remain insufficiently studied. Especially little is known about the structure and interaction principles of gravitational, positron, and electron fields.

Elementary particles also represent an area of numerous mysteries. The internal structure and properties of particles such as mesons (in particular, the muon meson), positron, electron, and many other fundamental objects require further investigation.

PEM as a "Bird in the Hand"

The Positron-Electron Model (PEM) offers specific mechanisms and explanations based on known physical principles and new ideas, including the role of muon mesons and peculiarities of four-dimensional geometry.

Distinctive features of the model are that it:

• Does not claim to fully explain all phenomena

• Provides a practical and understandable basis for further research

• Avoids speculation and unjustified assumptions

• Is built on proven physical principles

The Scientific Path - From "Sparrow" to "Crane"

The scientific method involves the gradual accumulation of knowledge through the formulation of reliable models and the fixation of stable facts. This allows:

• Creating a solid foundation for further research

• Consistently expanding the understanding of phenomena

• Avoiding premature generalizations

• Gradually approaching deeper explanations

PEM represents an important step towards a deeper understanding of the nature of matter and fundamental interactions. It demonstrates how one can move from simple but reliable models to more complex and comprehensive theories, while maintaining scientific rigor and practicality of the approach.

This path of scientific development allows:

• Accumulating reliable knowledge

• Testing hypotheses experimentally

• Gradually expanding the boundaries of understanding

• Avoiding dead-end directions of development

Explanatory note on Yandex Disk

Explanatory note on Google

Presentation of the structure of protons, neutrons, and atomic nuclei

Fundamental Physical Principles

Fundamental Particles and Fundamental Interactions:

Electron — consists of an electron charge and creates an electron field;

Positron — consists of a positron charge and creates a positron field;

Muon meson — a gravitational particle (muon minus positron or electron), creates a gravitational field

Magnetic field — is formed when a muon meson is inside an electric charge, which determines the pole: north or south.

Structural Particles:

In the Positron-Electron Model (PEM), the muon is considered a composite particle consisting of an electron or positron and a muon meson, which acts as a gravitational particle or dark matter. This muon meson is offset from the center to the edge of the electric charge and forms a unipolar magnetic charge, the type of which depends on the sign of the electric charge.

Proton — consists of a positron, in the center of which there is a gamma particle of high mass and density — the kernel, inside of which, according to various estimates, is from 23% to 35% of the positron charge and is surrounded by eight muon mesons (forming a cube around the kernel). The structure of the proton is held by the attraction of the electric charge of the positron and the gravitational charges of the muon mesons, which, being inside the positron, create a magnetic charge.

Neutron — a proton inside an electron. The negative charge of the electron does not penetrate inside the kernel, while the electron tries to maintain its structure, "pushing" the kernel along with the proton out of itself. However, the attraction of the positron in the proton and electron prevents the kernel from being pushed out. As a result of the fact that the electron does not penetrate inside the kernel, its size is larger than that of the positron by the volume of the kernel.

In PEM, the wave and corpuscular properties of the photon are separated, and during the annihilation of a positron and an electron, the following arise:

Gamma particle — the product of annihilation ("short circuit") of the charges of the positron and electron, while the charges themselves are preserved, mass 0.001097 amu, radius approximately 0.025 fm. A gamma particle is a particle and its energy is equal to the kinetic energy E=mv²/2 where v is the velocity, the minimum value can be zero.

Two gamma quanta (photons) with an energy of 0.511 MeV from the quanta of positron and electron fields.

Principal Differences from Other Models

In PEM, corpuscular and field matter are different forms of matter that exist independently of each other. The Einstein formula E=mc² is not applicable and is equivalent to a perpetual motion machine — an imaginary indefinitely long-acting device that allows you to receive more useful work than the amount of energy reported to it from the outside. Einstein's theory is the same science as the philosopher's stone — in the legends of medieval alchemists, a certain reagent necessary for the successful implementation of the transmutation of metals into gold, as well as for creating the elixir of life.

The electric field is divided into the fields of the positron and electron and consists of quanta of the corresponding fields and exist independently of the positron and electron. The electric charge is not divisible (unlike the standard model) and is not converted into energy. The electric current in the conductor is transmitted by positron and electron quanta.

In PEM, there is no antimatter as a physical object, CPT inversion is rejected (there are no negative protons). A positron is not an antiparticle of an electron; in PEM, the annihilation means a "short circuit" of the charges of a positron and an electron.

The proton consists of a positron, a kernel of gamma particles, and eight muon mesons. The neutron is a proton inside an electron. The kernel of gamma particles partially absorbs the charge of the positron, approximately one ten billionth of an elementary charge.

The atom is not a star system; all orbital electrons are on the surface of the nucleus. The classical planetary model of the atom (nucleus - "star", electrons - "planets") is rejected. There are no electrons in orbits - when they enter the nucleus, they "merge" with its surface. The sizes of atoms coincide with the sizes of nuclei, no more than 10 femtometers, which sharply contrasts with the classical ideas about large shells.

The charge of an atom is very small and negative, proportional to the number of nucleons. is explained by the partial absorption of the positron charge by the nucleus ("kernel"). This small difference creates a weak repulsion between atoms and prevents them from sticking together.

Valence and interatomic bonds are stabilized by magnetic and Coulomb fields of nucleons and muons with alternating polarity ("north" and "south").

Chemical properties depend on:

the negative charge of atoms - the number of nucleons,

the geometric and magnetic structure of the nucleus.

The absence of a charge defect would lead to the collapse of matter and a density comparable to a neutron star.

Summary and Philosophy of the Positron-Electron Model

The Positron-Electron Model (PEM) represents a modern alternative to classical models of the atomic nucleus structure, such as the liquid-drop and shell models, and offers a more fundamental view of the nature of matter and the structure of nucleons.

The core philosophy of PEM is the use of real particles — positrons, electrons, muons, and mesons — and their interactions, avoiding assumptions about hypothetical quarks and gluons. The model is based on fundamental physical principles and new ideas, such as the four-dimensional geometry of particles and the role of muon mesons.

PEM focuses on the geometric and dynamic structure of nucleons, where nucleons and mesons form stable structures with magnetic and gravitational properties, which explains their stability and interactions within the nucleus. The influence of the gravitational field through dark matter, represented by the muon meson, is considered, forming a holistic understanding of the structure and properties of particles.

Philosophically, PEM proposes a step-by-step scientific approach — from simple and reliable models that provide clear mechanisms and explanations to complex theories built on accumulated data and phased research. This approach avoids unnecessary speculation and focuses on experimentally confirmed phenomena.

Thus, PEM is a pragmatic model that can explain many phenomena in nuclear physics and is promising for further development of science and technology in the field of controlled thermonuclear fusion and energy.

Calculation of Angles and Geometry of the Proton, Neutron, Atom, and Matter as a Whole

Calculating the angles between the kernel (K) and pairs of muon mesons (M1, M2) in a cubic meson "shell" helps to understand the geometric basis of dimensionality. The kernel is in the center of the cube, the mesons are at the vertices, and the edge length is a = 1. Possible configurations and angles ∠M1KM2:

Adjacent Vertices (Shared Angle or Through an Edge): Mesons are connected by an edge. Distances: KM1 = KM2 = √3/2, M1M2 = 1.

By the law of cosines: cos(α) = (KM1² + KM2² - M1M2²) / (2 * KM1 * KM2) = (3/4 + 3/4 - 1) / (2 * 3/4) = (3/2 - 1) / (3/2) = (1/2) / (3/2) = 1/3.

α = arccos(1/3) ≈ 70.53°.

Vertices on the Same Face, Skip One (Face Diagonal): Mesons are on the same face, with one vertex between them. Distances: KM1 = KM2 = √3/2, M1M2 = √2.

cos(α) = (3/4 + 3/4 - 2) / (2 * 3/4) = (-1/2) / (3/2) = -1/3.

α = arccos(-1/3) ≈ 109.47°.

Opposite Vertices on a Face: Similar to the previous case, as they are the same angles (face diagonal). α ≈ 109.47°.

Opposite Vertices of the Cube (Cube Diagonal): Mesons are at the ends of the cube's diagonal, with the kernel in the middle. Distance M1M2 = √3, KM1 = KM2 = √3/2.

cos(α) = (3/4 + 3/4 - 3) / (2 * 3/4) = (-3/2) / (3/2) = -1.

α = arccos(-1) = 180°.

All other combinations can be reduced to these angles. These calculations emphasize that the possible angles in a proton — 70.53°, 109.47°, and 180° — correspond to key geometric relationships in three-dimensional space, influencing the stability of particles and, therefore, the structure of the Universe.