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"Surgical smoke" is an airborne by-product of electrosurgery comprised of vapour and suspended particles. Although concerns exist that exposure may be harmful, there is a poor understanding of the smoke in terms of particle size, morphology, composition and biological viability. Notably, it is not known how the biological tissue source and cutting method influence the smoke. The objective of this study was to develop a collection method for airborne by-product from surgical cutting. This would enable comprehensive analyses of the particulate burden, composition and biological viability. The method was applied to compare the electrosurgical smoke generated (in the absence of any evacuation mechanism) with the aerosolized/airborne by-products generated by ultrasonic and high-speed cutting, from bone and liver tissue cutting. We report a wide range of particle sizes (0.93-806.31 m for bone, 0.05-1040.43 m for liver) with 50% of the particles being
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All three methods are based on the relationship between walking speed and visibility, as opposed to extinction coefficient (typically used previously). The reason is that it is believed that people adjust their speeds during evacuation in smoke based on what they can see in the smoke-filled environment, independent of if what they see is emitted or reflected light. The latter is, however, of importance to perceived visibility in smoke. As an example, a light-emitting lamp can be seen from a greater distance in smoke than a reflecting emergency evacuation sign.
Method 2: Representation is almost identical for all individuals
The individuals are divided into three categories based on their walking speed in smoke-free conditions: average, slow and very slow. Individuals in one group are assumed to be walking at the same speed. For this method, the designer has to decide on the proportions of average, slow and very slow walkers in their verification. Practically speaking, method 2 means that:
The correlation can be described by the following equation (where w is the walking speed [m/s], wsmoke-free is the walking speed [m/s] in smoke-free conditions and v the visibility [m]), and by Figure 3:
The recommendation presented in this article is based on the currently available literature and data on human behaviour and movement in smoke-filled environments, and builds on the information, data and conclusions that have been presented in a range of studies. The reader must be aware of the fact that representing walking speed in smoke is a complex task with many uncertainties, and the recommendation suggested in this extended abstract does not take all aspects of movement-related parameters and variables into account.
In addition, the correlation is limited to the independent variable visibility and dependent variable walking speed. It is likely that other independent variables will have an effect on walking speed in smoke-free environments, smoke-filled environments or in both. This has not been possible to cover in the proposed recommendation.
Speed (methamphetamine, C10H15N) is a potent and addictive central nervous system stimulant, chemically related to amphetamine, but with greater central nervous system side effects. It is a white, odorless, bitter-tasting powder that easily dissolves in water or alcohol.
Medically, methamphetamine has been used for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and obesity, but these uses are limited in the U.S. due to the high potential for abuse, addiction, and channeling to illicit drug markets. Prescription doses are typically much lower than those used illegally. In the U.S., methamphetamine is available by prescription as the brand name product Desoxyn or generically. Only the 5 mg oral tablet is available.
Immediately after smoking or intravenous (IV) injection, the user experiences an intense sensation, often called a "rush", which lasts only a few minutes and is usually described as extremely pleasurable. Oral or intranasal use produces euphoria or a high, but not an intense rush. Snorting methamphetamine will lead to effects within 3 to 5 minutes, whereas oral ingestion takes 15 to 20 minutes.
The health hazards from chronic use of methamphetamine appear to be at least partially reversible. Recovery of dopamine transporter activity has been shown on brain neuroimaging studies after roughly 2 years. Motor skills and verbal memory tests showed some recovery, but not all changes have been shown to reverse over time.
Behavioral therapy remains the most effective treatment for methamphetamine abuse and addiction. According to the National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA), the combination of behavioral therapy and counseling, family education, 12-step support, drug testing and positive reinforcement for non-drug related activities has been shown to be effective. There are no specific medications approved for use in methamphetamine addiction.
The National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA) reports that clinical studies are ongoing looking at medications or vaccine use for treatment of methamphetamine addiction. In addition, bupropion (Wellbutrin XR, Wellbutrin XL), approved for use in depression, seasonal affective disorder and smoking cessation has been shown to reduce low-to-moderate methamphetamine cravings, in combination with behavioral group therapy. Bupropion's proposed mechanism in methamphetamine dependence by inhibiting the reuptake of norepinephrine and dopamine.
Other side effects include temporary hyperactivity, insomnia (trouble sleeping), anorexia (loss of appetite) and tremors or "shakes". High doses or chronic use have been associated with increased nervousness, irritability, paranoia, confusion, anxiety and aggressiveness, all typical side effects expected from a high-dose stimulant.
Methamphetamine can cause irreversible damage to blood vessels in the brain, leading to a stroke. Death can result from hyperthermia (elevated body temperature), convulsions (seizures) and cardiovascular collapse.
Chronic, high-dose methamphetamine abusers are susceptible to violent and erratic behavior, hallucinations, and a psychosis similar to schizophrenia. Psychotic episodes may recur for months or years after methamphetamine abuse has stopped. The neurotoxic effect of methamphetamine causes damage to brain cells that contain dopamine. Over time, reduced levels of dopamine can result in symptoms like those of Parkinson's disease, a severe movement disorder.
Similar to cocaine, methamphetamine blocks the reuptake of dopamine. Methamphetamine releases high levels of the brain chemical dopamine, which stimulates brain cells, enhancing mood and body movement. Dopamine is an important neurotransmitter used for body movement, motivation, pleasure, and reward. A "rush" of dopamine release in the brain due to methamphetamine abuse leads to the intense high and continued reuse of "speed" that can lead to addiction.
Methamphetamine can easily cross into the brain and also increases levels of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine, other brain chemicals (neurotransmitters). Methamphetamine is able to penetrate the central nervous system more readily than amphetamine, making it a more potent and longer-lasting stimulant. However, amphetamine is also an active metabolite of methamphetamine, peaking in blood levels in roughly 12 hours.
Oral methamphetamine has a half-life of roughly 4 to 5 hours. The half-life of a drug is the time it takes for the blood concentration of a drug to reduce by one-half of its original value. It takes about 5 half-lives for a drug to be almost fully eliminated from your body, but this can be variable. Metabolism occurs in the liver, and excretion occurs primarily in the urine and is pH dependent.
Methamphetamine use in pregnancy is of concern. There is limited knowledge of the fetal effects of methamphetamine abuse. Limited human studies have shown increased rates of premature delivery, low birth weight, separation of the placenta from the uterus, fetal growth retardation, heart and brain abnormalities, and withdrawal symptoms.
Research is continuing to assess the effect of methamphetamine use on social interactions, cognition and medical health in children exposed to methamphetamine in utero. Animal studies have shown birth defects and embryo death when high doses were given.
Infants born to mothers who are addicted to methamphetamine may experience symptoms of withdrawal as demonstrated by agitation and significant weakness. Additionally, amphetamines are excreted in human milk, and mothers who taking amphetamines should be advised to refrain from breast feeding.
There are different types of amphetamines. Doctors prescribe some amphetamines to treat medical conditions such as narcolepsy (an uncontrollable urge to sleep) or ADHD. Others are produced and sold illegally. The main forms of illicit methamphetamine are:
People can also become addicted to speed. This is when they spend a lot of time thinking about the drug and trying to get it. Some users may even feel like they need the drug just to get through the day. This can impact their:
Synthetic cathinones is the name of a category of drugs related to the naturally occurring khat plant. They are stimulants, meaning that they speed up the messages between the brain and the body and have similar effects to amphetamines.
Paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA) and paramethoxymethamphetamine (PMMA) are stimulants with psychedelic effects similar to MDMA, which is the main ingredient in ecstasy.1 In fact most people who take PMA or PMMA think they are taking ecstasy.
Are there evidence-based strategies for recovering from colds, influenza and upper respiratory inflammation or infection more quickly? A review by Allan and Arroll (2014) found that there is a need for more high-quality research on treatments for common colds. 152ee80cbc
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