403.19  Professional Development of Social Science teacher 

Module 5

RESEARCH TRENDS IN SOCIAL SCIENCE EDUCATION

Introduction: In a global and knowledge based age, a teacher has to enhance students’ appetite for more knowledge and variety of skills to cater to global demands. For the development of the knowledge and skills in a teacher, required changes have to be made in the instructions, at the teacher training level. These instructions generate new ideas and abilities in a student trainee. The instructions have to be simple and practical and have to inspire Teachers, who are required to bring changes into classroom teaching and learning. 

During last few decades there has been a radical change in teaching approaches compared to earlier; as a result, today we are very much conscious of using various teaching strategies at all the levels to convince the learners and create interest in learning.

Project based Learning, Learning through Activity, computerized Teaching and Learning are recent techniques used in teaching-learning process. Similarly Teachers who are progressive always think of constructivist theories in specific for facilitating, guiding, managing the students in teaching-learning process.

At teacher education level, the teacher educators must develop an environment to help the student trainees to construct the knowledge about various strategies which can be used to improve educational achievements of the pupils at secondary school level in different subjects. 

Under constructivist theories, the collaborative Learning strategy is an instructional method, in which the students work in small groups; this strategy can be a very good way of helping students to construct their own knowledge cooperatively. 

Collaborative Learning speaks about cooperative effort of students and teachers in a learning process. The teacher becomes a facilitator who structures learning opportunities, serve as a knowledge resource and encourage the students to work together to build a common body of knowledge. This opines that the change in the student attitude is possible through various strategies in teaching. Slow and low achievers may also be attracted to this new strategy. 

To achieve this, teacher training institutions should be equipped in such a way that teaching becomes constructive and fruitful and in turn provides a basis for the introduction of various experiences to the pupils.

Among all the other subjects of instructions, Social Sciences provide maximum scope for developing human interaction by dealing with social relationships. This develops subject matter as well as skills among the pupils to prepare them as responsible citizens of the society; and this subject ensures intelligibility and also experience, rather than the rote memory amongst pupils. It is a very lively discipline with full of imagination, creativity as well as controversy. It is an academic discipline, which develops certain intellectual abilities, to inculcate social and human values in the learner and to make him understand the world in a better way.

The purpose of Social science education 

The purpose of social science education, across the world and in all political systems, is to produce responsible citizens. There are three major categories of the attributes that a responsible citizen is supposed to possess: (i) knowledge attributes, (ii) competencies or capabilities, and (iii) attitudes or values attributes. In other words, a responsible citizen must, first and foremost, be knowledgeable or have the desire to know. 

Knowledge about the interdependence among people requires that the student seeks to understand how the social/political system operates; to understand the world as a system or an interconnected whole and also to understand the global implications of local decisions

and actions. A responsible citizen needs to be conscious of one’s identity (social, political, religious etc,) and seeks to know one’s own culture, heritage and world view; but also to know other people’s cultures in one’s own community and in different parts of the world. In addition, a knowledgeable citizen understands that views about the world are not internationally shared, and that because they belong to different cultures, different people have different perspectives, which have their own logic and validity. Knowledge of one’s own culture and of other people’s culture comes along with knowledge of the common stereotypes about others, which exist in one’s own culture and in other people’s cultures. It is through knowing other people’s cultures that we can understand why they behave as they do and we can begin to appreciate commonalities and differences, which is necessary for peaceful co-existence.

The methods of teaching of social science subjects must also enable the citizen to perceive differing perspectives in speech, print and audio visual media; and to use knowledge and imagination to develop insight into the ways of life, attitudes and beliefs of others.

Ethical considerations are an important dimension of the teaching of social science subjects. Teachers need to create learning experiences that will mould a responsible citizen with appropriate, pro-social attitudes and dispositions. Such a person can be identified through demonstration of respect for diversity and commonality among peoples, empathy, commitment, and readiness to take constructive action to bring about change or development. A responsible citizen shows respect for the needs and contribution of all members of the community and positively values the ways in which individuals can support and benefit the whole, and vice versa

The social sciences curriculum should: provide opportunities for learners to look at their own worlds with fresh, critical eye, and perhaps more importantly, to introduce learners to a world beyond their everyday realities. Schools should be special places that provide learners with knowledge to which they would otherwise not have access.The Social Sciences Education Interest Group (SSEIG) aims at assisting pre-service teachers to develop among (primary/secondary school students) the ability to acquire and learn to use knowledge, skills, and attitudes that will prepare them to be competent and responsible citizens throughout their lives.

Our first assumption is that the building and consolidation of a vibrant democratic political culture in our   country, where groups and individuals are aware of their identities and fully exercise their rights and responsibilities, is necessary for sustainable development. The second assumption is that the destiny and future of any country depends on the participation of each and every citizen in building accountable relationships between government and society. The third assumption is that a well designed and implemented social studies curriculum can be an effective instrument for the development of responsible citizens with the requisite knowledge, civic competence, attitudes, values and behaviours appropriate for a democratic political culture.

Areas of focus

School curriculum-

 Promotion of Life skills ,Human Rights ,Responsible Citizenship, Road Safety Education,     Democracy,  Gender , Economic and Social Development,  Poverty,  Culture,  Globalization

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) provides a useful frame of reference for thinking about what is entailed. As explained on a website dedicated to exploring this approach (www.tpck.org), TPACK attempts to identify the nature of knowledge required by teachers for technology integration in their teaching, while addressing the complex, multifaceted and situated nature of teacher knowledge. It builds on Schulman’s idea of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK).

Pedagogical content knowledge is an accumulation of common elements; 

• Knowledge of subject matter

• Knowledge of students and possible misconceptions

 • Knowledge of curricula 

• Knowledge of general pedagogy/andragogy.

 Understanding the Philosophy and Nature of the Social Science Education   

Understanding the basic concepts (politics, history, social studies, political education, citizenship education, general studies)  Philosophical  and psychological basis of social science education  Understanding the history and purpose of social science curriculum

Reviewing and Interpreting Civics Curriculum and Materials

Developing and applying framework for reviewing syllabus, course package and T-L materials  Developing and applying a framework for evaluating quality of textbooks and teachers’ guides. 

 Selecting Approaches for Teaching and Learning of Civics  

Examining the traditional, concept based and values based approaches in relation to the teaching of civics, and general studies  Distinguishing participatory and non participatory approaches to learning and teaching of civics, and general studies. 

Designing Teaching Materials for Civics 

Designing T-L resources and teaching aids using low cost materials from learners’ environment  Effective use of resources and practical activities to improve learner’s achievement 

Designing Effective Assessment and Evaluation Tools for Civics

Designing tools and standards for evaluation of teaching and learning  Using a variety of strategies for monitoring learner achievement  Using information from evaluation process for continuous improvement of pedagogy and learners’ achievement 

Classroom discussion of current events can be made and demonstrated through high-quality history lessons. (iii) Civic-based service learning.  (iv) Extracurricular activities.  (v) Student voice in school/classroom  (vi) Simulations of democratic processes. 

Recent Research in Instruction

Traditional approaches can be seen to be dominated by theory and not to address the needs of most students. Recently there have been calls for reforming mathematics instruction by considering more innovative pedagogical approaches, often rooted in constructivist theory, to promote students’ conceptual understanding. Theoretically and historically, trends in teaching and learning, have seen a shift from Behaviourism (Pavlov, 1927; Skinner, 1953; Thorndike, 1913), passing through Cognitivism (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; Craik&Tulving, 1975; Kulhavy& Wager, 1993; Martin, 1993; Squire, Knowlton &Musen, 1993), towards constructivism (Kolb, 1984; Mayer, 1999; Richardson, 2003; Steffe& Gale, 1995; Tynjälä, 1999).

Constructivism perceives learning as a process of constructing knowledge by individuals themselves as opposed to the passive teacher-student model (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989; Kolb, 1984; von Glasersfeld, 1987b). In the process of knowledge creation, learners link new knowledge with their previous knowledge. Social constructivism is distinguished from radical constructivism by placing emphasis on social processes influencing the learners’ constructions, particularly the importance of language and discourse

Pedagogues adopting constructivism as a basis for pedagogy suggest thatapproaches should focus on concepts and contextualisation instead ofinstructing isolated facts (Brooks & Brooks, 1993). Social constructivistpedagogy emphasises the students’ social interaction with peers and theteacher (Palincsar, 1998) and suggests that consideration should be givento the student’s preferred learning styles (Kolb, 1984).

Some of the main pillars of (so-called) constructivist pedagogy (Doolittle, 1999; Driver, 1995; Jaworski, 1994; Richardson, 2003; Savery& Duffy,2001; von Glasersfeld, 1987a) are: learning is a student-centred process, students’ autonomy should be fostered; learning should be contextualized and associated with authentic real-world environments and examples; social interaction and discourse form an important part of learning; the taught elements should be made relevant to the learner; the taught elements should be linked with the learners’ previous knowledge; it is important to facilitate continuous formative assessment mechanisms, self-esteem and motivation; teachers should act as orchestra synchronisers rather than speech givers; and teachers should consider multiple representations of their teachings.

The use of student-centered learning methods

Inquiry/ Problem/Project Based Learning (I/P/P/BL) methods have been developed and investigated.

Consideration of differences in learning styles

In learner centered education, learner is a constructor of knowledge and teacher is a facilitatoror guide. The effective learning required an appropriate environment, effective strategies to teaching –constructivist strategies and techniques. As a result the researchers give importance to those variables with enhances or hinder learning and instruction-

·         the techniques and strategies based on constructivism-the role of teacher in a constructivist environment

·         effectiveness of learner centered techniques

·         appropriate classroom environment for learning and instruction

·         learners individual needs for learning and suitable instruction

·         identifying and rectifying misconceptions

·         design teaching template based on constructivist theory

Therefore the new trends includes

1.      Effectiveness of learning strategies such as  constructivist models of learning, effectiveness of learning cycles, designing new instructional strategies, reflective teaching

2.      Edutainment learning strategy

Edutainment is a form of education which is designed to be entertaining, in order to keep people interested and engaged. In other words it indicates Education plus Entertainment or imparting of education by means of entertainment/enjoyment/play. Forms of children's entertainment are games dancing, music outdoor recreation, movies and theaters, electric home entertainment community celebration, advertising entertainment, cities associated with entertainment, contrived sporting events etc. It is a new trend developed in the field of education. Earlier it was believed to be essential only for small kids or students of lower grades, but, with the increasingly competitive world

Edutainment consist of two equally important parts: Entertainment and Content. The forms of Edutainment are Animation, Video clips, Role play, short film, Songs, Storytelling, Power point presentation, Games, puzzle, Comics, Outdoor games, Multimedia, Class activities, Dancing, Movies, Community celebrations, Cartoon, Film, Websites computer and Videogames etc.

Blended learning strategy

The concept of blended learning where multiple learning environments and activities are combined has existed even before the advent of computers and social networks with teachers using the “chalk and board” and “ paper and pencil” technologies.

Modern methods in use in education Technology-driven classrooms, Continuous comprehensive evaluation, Cross-curricular connections, Inquiry-based learning, Emphasis on understanding of concepts, Linking curriculum with life,  Emphasis on skill building, life skills and values, Smart interactive boards, BYOD – Bring your own device, Collaborative learning, Differential learning, Activity-based learning and learning labs, Interdisciplinary learning, Integrative and social responsibility and civic engagement, Digitisation in teaching, learning assessment and feedback,  Collaborative learning, Differentiated instruction and Flipped classroom

·         Learning Cycles 5E Learning Cycle & 7E Learning Cycle

·         Brain based learningBr ai n-B ase d L e arni ng The  ‘Dec a de  of  t he  B ra in’ spa wne d a  m ul t i t ude  of brai n re se a rc h a nd e duc a ti ona l

·         Problem based learning

·         Problem solving method

·         Cooperate / Group method

·         Computer Assisted Instruction

·         Interacting method

Effectiveness of new classroom techniques to support instruction (small group discussion, think –pair share, flexible grouping, brainstorming, , puzzles, riddles,  concept mapping, graphic organisers etc

Therefore, alternative assessment methods such as recordings, checklists, diaries, portfolios, student debriefings, peer conferences and reflective journal writing are necessary within a constructivist classroom.

The recent researches in teaching and learning are therefore giving more priority to

Ø  alternative assessment methods such as  effectiveness and role of recordings, checklists, diaries, portfolios, student debriefings, peer conferences, reflective journal writing , surveys, peer and self-assessment, dialogue and feedback, e- portfolio questionnaires, assignments, graphic organizers, concept mapping,role of  rubrics and  grading  to improve learning, Projects and Performance tasks, observation ,interview

Ø  online assessment

Ø  the skills needed to success in the 21st century like:Thinking skill,: critical thinking, problem solving, creativity, and metacognition

Ø  Actions: communication, collaboration, digital and technological literacy

Ø  the significance of formative assessment, e- assessment

Ø  the contemporary view in assessment - standard based performance assessment system,

Ø  the future of assessment

Ø  multiple opportunities to assess students’ learning – effect of  multiple assessment

Ø  integrating formative and summative functions of assessment

Ø  the benefits of performance assessment in mathematics learning

Ø  reflective assessment – including students in the assessment program

Ø  including parents in the assessment program 

New trends in teaching students with diverse learning needs and talents

Diversity is the quality or state of having many different forms, types, ideas, it is the state of having people who are different races or who have different cultures in a group or organization. The inclusion of different types of people in a group or organization, an instance of being composed of differing elements or qualities. A diverse classroom is the ideal laboratory in which learn the multiple perspectives required by a global society and to put to use information concerning diverse cultural patterns. 

Teaching strategies (Researches can be conducted in these areas)

There are many useful teaching strategies to support effective teaching in social sciences. This section contains a variety of graphic organisers; cooperative learning ideas; tools and resources for writing and presenting information; and ideas for oral and visual activities.

Graphic organisers such as charts, webs, diagrams, maps, templates, grids, and wheels to help students organise and display information and their findings.

 Cooperative learning Methods- these group and team activities in which students have opportunities to work together to achieve shared learning goals. This section includes links to suggestions for written activities, such as essay and paragraph writing, questionnaires, surveys, graphic organisers and descriptions. These links to information about oral or visual forms of literacy are useful for teaching and learning in social studies. This includes the use of pictures, photos, drawings, audio conferences, booklets, biographies, and interviews.

Technology has gained prominence as a tool within the social studies with the potential to enhance current pedagogic practice. Although an increasing body of research suggests that technology can improve academic achievement, changes in social studies instruction based on these findings have been tempered by the following: (1) questions about the efficiency and effectiveness of computer technology applications in the classroom; (2) the role of teacher education institutions and school settings in facilitating or hindering computer-based activities;(3) the unrealized potential of technology; and (4) the overlooked consequences of technological development on children and youth with regard to their social functioning, interpersonal interactions, and global understanding. Various technologies such as Internet and web-based resources, hypermedia, data instruments, digital video, and tele-collaborative teaching represent emerging resources implemented in social studies instruction.

The Fourth Review Committee of the Indian Council for Social Science Research (ICSSR 2007) reports that social science research is driven by two factors: an interest in the functioning of society in its diverse social, cultural, political and economic aspects and in understanding the variables that influence them, and the practical needs of the policy-makers and managers in government, civil society and the private sector for reliable data and professional analysis.

Religion, ideas, art and music, entertainment and sports are important aspects of human life and should be included in the study of any historical period. Moreover, history has become more inclusive.

Geographers and educators have agreed upon the five themes of geography that serve as a framework for geographic understanding and illustrate the relationship between human history and the earth, between time and place. These themes are (1) developing a sense of place; (2) developing locational skills and understanding the significance of location; (3) understanding the interaction between humans and the natural environment through time; (4) understanding the reasons for and the importance of human migration; and (5) understanding world regions and the interrelated impact of cultural and global interdependence

Student interest is heightened when literature is used as an integral part of a social studies program. Literature includes fiction, biography and autobiography, speeches, diaries, poetry, myths and legends, plays, and even religious literature

Recognition of this diverse and changing society is associated with the term "multiculturalism." The effective social studies curriculum highlights and celebrates the diversity of our society. The new social studies curriculum seems to be heading for a blend of global multiculturalism, including emphasis on western civilization

Today's social studies programs are beginning to encourage students to examine the role of the individual in society and the responsibilities and behaviors that lead to a just and fair nation.

Teaching about the impact of religion in history and contemporary society is closely linked to multicultural and ethical education. Knowing about, comparing, and understanding religious beliefs is a key element in developing tolerance and a comprehension of one of the primary motivating factors in human affairs.

Areas of research

 Geography

·         pedagogic and assessment practices used in the teaching and learning of geography

·         deepen collective understanding of learning progressions in geography;

·         improve ways in which high quality materials and resources for geography  teaching and learning can be developed and provided;

·         develop understanding of learners’ geographical knowledge,  and experience, including their misconceptions, to enhance geography’s teaching and learning;

·         develop understanding of learners’ historical knowledge,  and experience, including their misconceptions, to enhance teaching and learning;

·         improve the teacher education of geography educators,

·         linking innovative teaching practices to empirical research in geography education

·         research orientation’ among geography teachers and educators that enables reflective and critical engagement with habitual practices and a professional habit of mind that demands improvement in the quality of geography education;

·         strengthen the scientific status of geography education and consolidate it as an area of knowledge by developing and reinforcing working networks among researchers and educators.

It aspires to developing an international culture of research in geography education to enable the development of policy and practices that enhance the quality of geography teaching and learning for all in formal and informal education. It encourages policy makers and geography educators to build capacity in research and its application to the classroom and wider learning contexts.

These dimensions include the learners, educators, curriculum and resources, pedagogy, policy makers and influences on policy, its history and research practices in geography education.The foundational understandings for geography education lie with the learners, what they bring to, how they respond to and what they gain from geographical learning.  The other dimensions focus on the ‘how’ in translating the findings and understandings from research about learners into effective teaching, curriculum, resources and pedagogy.  There are also influences on geography education in its settings, as well as how it has changed over time and for its participants. 

A.    Learners: Learners in and of geography education include all those children, youth and adults engaged in learning in formal institutions and informal settings.  This dimension of research in geography education concerns such aspects as how learners gain and develop their geographical experiences and their understanding of geography during their lives from their earliest years.  It can be influenced by theories of learning.  It encompasses learning informally and in educational settings, learners’ motivations, their knowledge and misunderstandings, and their views about their experiences of geography education.

B.    Educators: Educators involved in geography education include pre-school and school teachers, university educators and teacher educators, adult educators, informal educators and those involved with the media as a means of informing and educating people.  This dimension of research in geography education concerns such aspects as educators’ experience and understandings of geography, their motivations for and attitudes to teaching and communicating about geography, their learning in and of geography, their experience of teaching geography, the influences and impacts of the contexts in which they work, about how they make use of the networks they are involved with, about their professional development and its impact on their teaching, and their approaches to and the ways they manage change as it affects their geography teaching.

C.    Curriculum and resources

Curriculum in geography education includes the structures, contents and manifestations of courses taught to learners, while resources refers to the variety of hardcopy and virtual materials and environmental resources which educators and learners use in their teaching and studies.  This dimension of research in geography education concerns such aspects as the contexts and roles of geography in the curriculum, how its teaching and learning is planned, where it takes place, innovation, progression in geography curricula in educational settings, the variety of practices used to construct and enhance geography curricula and teaching, how the experience for learners and educators affects the curriculum, and the resources available and used by educators in such settings as classrooms, the outdoors and other teaching sites and spaces.

D.    Pedagogy

Pedagogy in geography education includes all the approaches, techniques and methodologies to teaching and learning employed in educating learners.  This dimension of research in geography education concerns such aspects as the repertoire for teaching on which educators’ draw, the range of strategies educators use and their impact on learners, the opportunities and constraints influencing educators’ contexts and styles of teaching, understanding learners’ experiences of geography teaching, assessment in geography and its uses, effects and outcomes, and approaches to connecting geographical learning to learners’ lives.  It will be influenced by the roles that educational theories play in understanding learning and teaching.

Research in geography education includes collaboration between educators and researchers, educators and/or their students as researchers, and interaction with policy-makers, governmental and non-governmental organisations, publishers and the broadcasting and other media.  National and international collaborations in geography education research often draw and rely on networks such as the International Geographical Union, its Commission on Geographical Education and other geography, geography education and cognate networks nationally and internationally, which exist to facilitate the national and international exchange of ideas and provide researchers with opportunities to share their work with audiences at workshops, symposia and conferences.  However, this can be inhibited by language barriers between researchers, though where a shared language is used research can benefit greatly.

Researches

National Education Association (NEA)'s Committee on the Social Studies was urging that an interdisciplinary course of instruction be created based on the social sciences . Secondary School Studies advocated an interdisciplinary approach in the social studies.

At all levels, however, the goals of social studies have been characterized by Peter Martorella (1985) as: (1) transmission of the cultural heritage; (2) methods of inquiry; (3) reflective inquiry; (4) informed social criticism; and (5) personal development.

The council also has developed position statements to guide the profession on critical areas of education, such as ability grouping, character education, ethics, information literacy, multicultural and global education