105.19 Learning to Function as Social Science Teacher

Module 5 Pedagogical Skills Development

5.1 Pedagogy-Pedagogical Knowledge-Pedagogical Competence – Meaning and significance

Pedagogy

         Pedagogy is the science of teaching. The word comes from the paidagōgia, where  paidos means "child" and ágō means "lead"; thus literally "to lead the child".The two important aspects of Pedagogy are pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical competence.

Watkins and Mortimer (1999) define it as ‘any conscious activity by one person designed to enhance the learning of another’.

Alexander (2003) defines Pedagogy as the act of teaching together with its attendant discourse. It is what one needs to know, and the skills one needs to command in order to make and justify the many different kinds of decisions of which teaching is constituted.

Pedagogic knowledge (PK)

Pedagogical knowledge is a key to successful teaching. Pedagogical knowledge is the deep knowledge about the processes and practices or methods of teaching and learning and how it covers overall educational purposes, values and aims. This is a general form of knowledge which includes extent of student learning, classroom management, and lesson plan development and implementation and student evaluation. The pedagogical ‘knowledge base’ of teachers includes all the required cognitive knowledge for creating effective teaching and learning environments.  It is principles and strategies of classroom management and organization.

A teacher with deep pedagogical knowledge understands how students construct knowledge and acquires skills; develop habits of mind and positive attitudes towards learning. As such, pedagogical knowledge requires an understanding of cognitive, social and developmental theories of learning and how they apply to students in their classroom. It includes,

·         Content knowledge

·         Knowledge of teaching methods: having a command of various teaching methods, knowing when and how to apply each method;

·         Knowledge of classroom assessment: knowledge of different forms and purposes of formative and summative assessments, knowledge of how different frames of reference (e.g., social, individual, criterion-based) impact students’ motivation;

·         Structure: structuring of learning objectives and the lesson process, lesson planning and evaluation

·         Knowledge of the nature of the target group- their age level. interest, attitude , level of readness, intelligence

·         Practice in time tabling- designing teaching time table by giving emphasis to extra curricular activities

·         Classroom management

·         Adaptivity:  ability to deal with heterogeneous learning groups in the classroom.

McIntyre (1993) provide 10 qualities proposed by pupils that create good teaching and a further 4 proposed by teachers: therefore the PK should include

1.      Creation of a relaxed and enjoyable atmosphere in the classroom

2.      Retention of control in the classroom

3.      Presentation of work in a way that interests and motivates

4.      Providing conditions so that pupils understand the work

5.      Making clear what pupils are to do and achieve

6.      Judging what can be expected of a pupil

7.      Helping pupils with difficulties

8.      Encouraging pupils to raise expectations of themselves

9.      Development of personal mature relationships with pupils

10.  Teachers’ personal talents.

11.  Considering how planning interacts with the management of classes and lessons

12.  The management of lesson introductions

13.  Managing question and answer sessions.

14.  Building the confidence and trust of pupils

Significance of Pedagogic Knowledge

·         Pedagogical knowledge helps to bringing together “a body of general knowledge, beliefs, and skills related to teaching”, which includes knowledge about the students and the learning, the curriculum and the instruction, and an additional component known as “classroom management” to enhance teaching and learning.

·         Pedagogical knowledge helps to improve the levels of learners’ engagement in learning and thus achievement.

·         Pedagogical knowledge intends to establish the theoretical foundations and methodological resources for teaching performance which enable prospective teachers to envisage the tasks and issues involved in teaching and learning regardless of the area in which they work.

·         Good pedagogical Knowledge promote higher cognitive activation, better instructional pacing, and better student-teacher relationships.

Means to improve Pedagogic Knowledge

·         Observing other teachers teaching to deepen understanding:

·         Adopting the role of an apprentice: seek support, guidance, clear direction from school mentors, teaching staff, and specialist consultants and work collaboratively with experienced practitioners.

·         Consulting the internet, teacher forums and other published materials for teaching resources and adapting them to suit students’diverse needs and level of learning.

·         Trialing ideas within the specific learning environment; evaluating and reflecting; revising teaching methods to result in a good student response

·         Enhancing subject knowledge and pedagogy as a result of undertaking alternative school placements in other educational settings and key stages.

·         Knowledge of self in relation to subject knowledge and pedagogy

Pedagogical Competence

Generally speaking, pedagogical competences have been regarded either as a collective of potential behaviours/ capacities allowing for efficient manifestation of an activity, or as a minimum professional standard, often specified by law, which professionals should reach.

One  definition is constructed by taking into consideration the resources used in an educational process starting from and based on developing competences. Thus, this approach regards pedagogical competence as “the ability of an individual to use a coordinated, synergistic combination of tangible resources (e.g. instruction materials such as books, articles, and cases and technology such as software and hardware) and intangible resources (e.g. knowledge, skills, experience) to achieve efficiency and/ or effectiveness in pedagogy” (Madhavaram, Laverie, 2010, p. 5).

The emphasis in understanding pedagogical competence should thus fall on the integrated features which outline the ability to solve pedagogical problems and typical pedagogical tasks occurring in situations of real pedagogical activities by applying knowledge, professional and life experience, values and talents in a creative manner so to obtain appropriate and effective results.

Pedagogical competence is the ability and will to regularly apply the attitude, the knowledge, and the skills that promote the learning of the teacher’s students in the best way. This shall be in agreement with the goals that apply, and within the framework available and presupposes continuous development of the teacher’s own competence and instructional design.

The Pedagogical competence includes the ability

·         to teach

·          to foster the attitude of learning, scientific approach

·         to have broad and appropriate subject knowledge

·         to identify  how students learn

·          to have Knowledge about educational goals and the organization

·         to apply teaching skills

·         to follow a holistic view

·         to reflect on class room approaches used and to plan and initiate change

·         to develop classroom practices that facilitate learning

·         to lead and organize different activities

·         to adopt evaluation modes that are appropriate for assessing student’s performance

The  aspects that are of important for the teacher’s pedagogical competence are,

1. Attitude: Having an attitude that best promotes student learning can be seen as the cornerstone of pedagogical competence.

2. Knowledge: As a basis for pedagogical competence the teacher needs knowledge within the four following areas.

·         The subject

·         How students learn (in general and for the specific subject)

·         The teaching process and teaching methods

·         The goal of the course and the organisation

3. Ability: Applying knowledge in the areas mentioned means demonstrating different types of ability. For assessment of pedagogical competence, for example it is the extent to which the teacher has shown

•         the ability to plan and organise the activity

•         the ability to structure and present material in a subject in an appropriate way for the students

•         the ability to adapt teaching to the particular group of students and the situation.

4. Adapting to the situation: The definition emphasises that pedagogical competence always has to be related to the situation – to the frame work.

5. Perseverance: The ability and the will to work regularly in the best way ought therefore to be an important part of pedagogical competence.

6. Continuous development: Pedagogical competence is not something static, something which one ever completes. Showing the ability and the will to apply a way of working that best supports student learning means continuously taking in new knowledge, learning from new experiences and developing professionally both in one’s subject and pedagogically.

7. An integrated whole: The different aspects are linked together in a chain where different parts build upon, or follow, other parts. Attitude is fundamental. Application of knowledge in one area can presuppose.

4.2 Pedagogical skills

Pedagogy involves the understanding the content one is teaching, and the ability to convey knowledge and skills in ways that students can understand, remember and apply. The pedagogical skills can generally be divided into classroom management skills and content-related skills.

Pedagogical Skills for Classroom Management

Classroom management is a term that is used to describe various practices employed by teachers to make sure that the behaviour of the students does not disrupt or interfere with lesson plans. The classroom behavioural issues may specific to students who are in elementary school, middle school, and sometimes even high school. The classroom management is important in all classroom settings.

Despite the age of the students in a given group, classroom management is intended to maintain an environment that is conducive to instruction and learning. There are a number of ways that this can be done. Most methods of classroom management can be divided into two categories. One includes methods for preventing disruptive behaviour in the classroom. Another includes methods for dealing with disruptive behaviour when it occurs in a classroom setting.

Having good pedagogical skills is essential for classroom and behaviour management.  The pedagogical skills that are essential for classroom management are as follows:

§  Knowing the subject.

§  Identify what works and what doesn’t well in the classroom. Recognising methods that do not work is key to classroom management.

§  Knowing the students – not just academically, need to know what makes students tick; what their interests are, their personality and their learning styles.

§  establishing clear rules and expectations

§  Establishing expectations upfront keeps many problems from arising

§  Handle  the behavioural problems with a minimum amount of disruption to the learning environment

§  Be transparent – students should be well aware of teacher’s expectations. In a constructivist learning environment, students should be active participant in building. Teachers need to be consistent and equitable in students’ potentials and inappropriate behaviour.

§  Being able to provide stability and structure in both the academic and cultural aspects of the classroom.

§  Be able to create a learning environment that it challenging, open, engaging and rich which enables students to meet their targeted learning outcomes as well as being interested and motivated.

§  Addressing pupils by their name

§  Formulating and forming norms of classroom behaviour

§  Giving clear instructions

§  Providing sufficient work for students

§  Keeping pupils within the eye span of teachers

§  Smooth transition in stimuli and responses

§  Recognizing and reinforcing acceptable behaviour

§  Checking appropriate behavior of pupils then and there itself

Pedagogical Skills for Classroom Management (using technology).

There are a number of pedagogical skills for classroom management that teachers must possess and exercise when utilising technology in the classroom. These include:

·         Direct monitoring by the teacher: Direct monitoring by the teacher is vital to ensure that technology is being used appropriately in the classroom to maximise its effectiveness in the classroom.

·         Maintaining equity: all students should have the chance to access and use computers in order to achieve lesson objectives, whether in the classroom or at home.

·         Teachers must ensure that they personally have a good foundational knowledge of the technology and resources they will be utilising in the classroom, so that precious class time is not wasted with the teacher deducing the functions or experiencing difficulties with the technology.

·         Instructions given by the teacher must be explicit in regards to using the technology, in order to enable students to learn and discourage off-task behaviour (i.e. students accessing and using the technology in ways that are distracting).

·         Teachers must ensure that their students are able to operate the technology being used in the class, so that lesson time is not used to teach the students how to use the technology, but rather they can be taught content knowledge while using the technology as an aid.

·         Lastly, teachers should be able to use different resources and applications to cater for students of mixed abilities. Tasks should be set to cater for students who are at different levels of learning, including those with physical disabilities and other special needs – there is an abundance of different technology that can help eliminate these barriers that students experience when it comes to gaining the best education that teachers should certainly make themselves aware of.

These are the most important pedagogical considerations that teachers must address when using technology in their classrooms, and each individual teacher and user of technology will most likely possess their own ideologies on how to best manage a technological classroom.

Principles:

1.  Principle of clarity and mastery of content

2.  Principle of involvement

3.  Principle of democratic behaviour

4.  Principle of teacher behaviour

5.  Principle of self-control

6.  Principle of personal attributes (sympathy, empathy, dignity of work, etc.)

Strategies:

1.  Have rules

2.  Timely intervention

3.  Pleasant classroom climate

Content related skills

The other major area of pedagogical skills is that of teaching content effectively. These skills vary with the subject matter and level of instruction, at different stages. Regardless of the content, however, the teacher needs the skill

·         to present information in ways that actively engage the students in the material that they are learning.

·         to impart information and to  provide opportunities to apply that information.

·         to tailor content to the needs of his or her students

·         to anticipate and respond to individual students' learning needs and challenges.

·         to present tasks that are appropriate to the students' level of cognitive development.

These two types of pedagogical skills work together to create a good learning environment. Engaging and appropriate teaching methods help to reduce behavioural problems in the classroom. Students who are actively learning are less likely to be disruptive. If the material is too easy or not presented in interesting enough ways, students are likely to get bored. On the other hand, material that is too difficult may cause students to become frustrated.

Promoting culturally inclusive classroom environment

 A culturally inclusive classroom is one where students and staff alike recognise, appreciate and capitalise on diversity so as to enrich the overall learning experience. Fostering a culturally inclusive learning environment encourages all individuals – regardless of age, gender, ethnicity, religious affiliation, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation or political beliefs – to develop personal contacts and effective intercultural skills.

Many teachers are faced with limited understanding of cultures other than their own and the possibility that this limitation will negatively affect their students’ ability to become successful learners. Hence, teachers must critically assess their relationships with their students and their understanding of students’ cultures.

Characteristics:

1. Positively interact with students

·         (establish an introduction system or “meet-and-greet” process that enables students and staff to gain information about the cultural backgrounds of others, and the diversity of experience in the classroom-ice-breaking sessions;

·         celebrate similarities, as well as discover differences between students;

·         promote computer and information technology as an easily accessible method of student-lecture interaction, particularly electronic bulletin boards (

·         communicate to students that you are committed to understanding cultural differences and understanding your own assumptions, values, beliefs associated with diversity. This sends a message that culture is valued and respected in the classroom; provide opportunities for your students to interact with you informally, before and after lectures or tutorials is an ideal time;

·         make an effort to learn something unique about your student

·         Display positive nonverbal behaviours (inviting facial expressions, eye contact, posture, hand gestures, physical distance) to ensure you appear approachable to students

2. Actively discourage classroom incivilities

·         Establish explicit ground-rules for appropriate classroom conduct to protect against cultural exclusion and insensitivity

·         Communicate verbally and non-verbally high expectations for displaying mutual respect toward all students

·         Encourage students to negotiate an accepted “code of conduct” and set of disciplinary measures for inappropriate classroom behavior

·         Respond promptly to any behavior that can be considered prejudiced, biased or discriminatory in nature. Do not tolerate racist, sexist or culturally insensitive comments made by students

·         Avoid ignoring or neglecting the needs of individual students

·         When presenting information on cultural diversity and linguistic diverse individuals or minority groups, clearly cite published literature and research findings, rather than expressing your personal opinion

3.      Encourage open, honest and respectful discussion

·         Prompt students to ask questions by using open-ended statements, such as “would anyone like to share a different opinion or perspective?”

·         Avoid singling out individual students or putting anyone “on the spot”, particularly when discussing culturally or personally sensitive issues. For example, a student will feel pressured if it is assumed they can speak on behalf of all the people from their country or culture or origin

·         Promote turn-taking when discussing controversial issues

·         Ask students how they prefer to learn, and where possible, examine how you might adapt your teaching and learning activities accordingly. For example, inviting students to write a self-reflective essay” to explain their learning style; completing a learning style inventory assessment, or providing an online forum to openly discuss how they like to learn are ideal methods to explore learning styles

   4.   Use inclusive language and appropriate modes of address

·         Ask what name or form of address students prefer, during class discussions, refer to students by name as much as possible

Many teachers are faced with limited understanding of cultures other than their own and the possibility that this limitation will negatively affect their students’ ability to become successful learners. Hence, teachers must critically assess their relationships with their students and their understanding of students’ cultures

The measures to promote culturally inclusive class room environment  are:

1.  Use a Range of Culturally Sensitive Instructional Methods and Materials

Teachers need to use instructional methods that are tailored to suit the setting, the students, and the subject. By varying and adapting these methods and materials, teachers can increase the chances that their students will succeed. The following are effective culturally sensitive instructional methods.

·         Explicit, Strategic Instruction: Explicit, strategic instruction shows students what to do, why, how, and when. An effective strategy is the think-aloud method, a procedure that takes advantage of the benefits of modeling. In a “think-aloud,” the teacher reads a passage and talks through the thought processes for students. The objective is to show students how to ask themselves questions as they comprehend text.

·         Reciprocal questioning: In reciprocal questioning students engage in shared reading, discussion, and questioning (Leu& Kinzer, 1999). The primary goal of this strategy is to help students learn to ask questions themselves about the meaning they are constructing as they read.

·         Interdisciplinary Units: Interdisciplinary units include and connect content area learning with language arts and culturally diverse literature (Cooper, 2000; Leu& Kinzer, 1999). Many effective classrooms are organized around an interdisciplinary, or cross-curricular, theme with students participating in meaningful reading, writing, listening, and speaking tasks as they explore the theme through a variety of activities and books.

·         Instructional Scaffolding: Instructional scaffolding involves the use of teacher demonstration and the modeling of strategies that students need to be successful with content area texts. In scaffolded instruction, teachers determine the difference between what students can accomplish independently and what they can accomplish with instructional support. Teachers then design instruction that provides just enough scaffolding for students to be able to participate in tasks that currently are beyond their reach.

·         Journal Writing: Journal writing provides opportunities for students to share their personal understanding regarding a range of literature in various cultural contexts that inform, clarify, explain, or educate them about our culturally diverse society.

·         Open-Ended Projects: Open-ended projects allow students to contribute at their varying levels of ability. Such projects work well with diverse learners because they need not start or finish at the same time.

2.      Establish a classroom atmosphere that respects individuals and their cultures

Teachers can enhance students’ self -esteem when they construct learning environments that reflect the cultural membership in the class. Teachers must attend to all students and try to involve them equally in all class activities. This recognition gives students a positive feeling about their worth as individuals and as productive members in their classroom.

Some strategies to accomplish a positive classroom atmosphere include:

·         Current and relevant bulletin boards- that display positive and purposeful activities and events involving culturally diverse people. Include, for example, newspaper articles (local and national) reporting newsworthy events or accomplishments that involve people of color, photographs of community leaders from culturally diverse backgrounds, student-made posters depicting culturally relevant historical events, and original (student- written) stories and poems with Culturally diverse themes.

·         A book corner with a variety and range of culturally diverse literature, fiction and nonfiction.

·         Cross-cultural literature discussion groups -in which students discuss quality fiction and nonfiction literature that authentically depicts members of diverse cultural groups.Discussion groups help all students feel pride in themselves and in their culture when they see their backgrounds valued in classroom reading and study activities.

·         Language arts and social studies programs- provide opportunities for students to share written and oral reports pertaining to their heritage  and cultural traditions.

3.      Foster an Interactive Classroom Learning Environment

Students must have opportunities to interact with each other—to engage in   shared inquiry and discovery—in their efforts to solve problems and complete tasks. The following are suggested activities for interactive engagement in the learning process:

·         Cooperative learning groups. Cooperative groups bring students together within a variety of supportive and collaborative learning activities. The use of this kind of learning group allows all children to see the benefits of bringing together people with diverse backgrounds for problem-solving tasks.

·         Guided and informal group discussions. Informal discussions provide opportunities for able students and less able students to collaborate in constructing meaning from text and enable them to learn from each other by sharing their reflections, opinions, interpretations, and questions.

·         The Internet.  On the Web, children can experience exciting cultural exchanges. Key pals is the online equivalent of pen pals. It is an e-mail activity that may be particularly beneficial to second-language   learners because the students are able to communicate in their native language   with children from similar cultural  and linguistic backgrounds.

4.         Employ Ongoing and Culturally Aware Assessments

In culturally responsive classrooms, teachers employ ongoing and systematic assessment of student abilities, interests, attitudes, and social skills. This information provides a basis for instructional decision making and offers insights into what to teach and how to teach.

·         Daily observation of students’ social and learning behaviors in all classroom situations. Observations can be recorded on checklists, in notebooks, on file cards, or in any way that permits the teacher to summarize observations in a consistent and meaningful way.

·         Portfolio assessment. Student and teacher select samples of work that reveal the diverse needs and abilities of the student. Teachers, students, and family members reflect on what students have done over time, how well they are doing, and what areas need to be improved.

·         Teacher-made tests that are closely tied to the instructional program. Special attention is given to the cognitive styles of all the students and their evolving academic skills.

·         Student self-assessment. Students can respond to questions about their learning during periodic teacher/student conferences.

·         Teacher self-evaluation. Self-evaluation is an integral part of teaching effectiveness. The kinds of questions teachers ask themselves about their choices of teaching behaviors and strategies, the effectiveness and cultural relevance of their lessons, and their reactions and responses to the cultural diversity in their classrooms can greatly contribute to continuing growth in teaching and learning.

5.      Collaborate with other Professionals and Families

Collaboration and communication with culturally diverse families and with other professionals are essential elements of culturally responsive classrooms. The following are specific collaborative activities that teachers and families might use:

·         Consult and share ideas regularly with other teachers with whom students work.Meet with teachers to discuss students’ academic and social progress, as well as specific learning needs

·         Communicate regularly with families. For example, send newsletters to all families providing an overview of culturally responsive curriculum goals, classroom activities, and selected student- written stories and poems.

·         Invite families to participate in classroom cultural celebrations and to assist in planning such events. Encourage culturally diverse families to visit the classroom to learn what occurs in the learning environment and to see how well their children are

doing—academically and socially.

·         Initiate a parent volunteer tutorial program.

·         Use culturally diverse community resources. Invite to your classroom culturally diverse civic leaders, business leaders, artists and writers, members of the police and fire department, college professors, and academically successful high school students.

·         Attend culturally diverse community or neighborhood events