Unit-VIII

Most of the time even though we use Assessment and Evaluation as synonyms, there is a basic difference between them. Concepts of Assessment and Evaluation are discussed below:

1.1 Educational Assessment and Evaluation:

Educational Assessment:

Educational assessment is the systematic process of documenting and using empirical data on the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs to refine programs and improve student learning.  Assessment data can be obtained by directly examining student work to assess the achievement of learning outcomes or can be based on data from which one can make inferences about learning. Assessment is often used interchangeably with test, but not limited to tests Assessment can focus on the individual learner, the learning community (class, workshop, or other organized group of learners), a course, an academic program, the institution, or the educational system as a whole (also known as granularity). The word 'assessment' came into use in an educational context after the Second World War.

As a continuous process, assessment establishes measurable and clear student learning outcomes for learning, provisioning a sufficient amount of learning opportunities to achieve these outcomes, implementing a systematic way of gathering, analyzing and interpreting evidence to determine how well student learning matches expectations, and using the collected information to inform improvement in student learning.

The final purpose of assessment practices in education depends on the theoretical framework of the practitioners and researchers, their assumptions and beliefs about the nature of human mind, the origin of knowledge, and the process of learning.

Educational Evaluation:

Evaluation focuses on grades and might reflect classroom components other than course content and mastery level. An evaluation can be used as a final review to gauge the quality of instruction. It’s product-oriented. This means that the main question is: “What’s been learned?” In short, evaluation is judgmental.

Difference between Assessment and  Evaluation:

Assessment                                      Evaluation

Is ongoing                                       Provides closure

Improves learning quality               Judges learning level

Individualized                                 Applied against standards

Ungraded                                        Graded

Provides feedback                           Shows shortfalls

Process-oriented                         Product-oriented

The  word  "evaluation"  is  generally  understood  as  some  kind  of  assessment  which  means estimating the value of something. When the term evaluation is mentioned in the context of mathematics education, the first thought may perhaps be of tests and grades. But that is not all. Evaluation is much more than just tests which are only one of the many ways of assessing pupil performance. As a student, most of you would have perhaps thought that teachers used evaluation  only  to  find  out  how  their  students  had  performed.  Now,  as  a  teacher  of mathematics,  you   will   understand   how   evaluation   helps   you   to   improve   your   own  performance as a teacher as well.

        This unit discusses the role of evaluation in the teaching and learning of mathematics. It also presents various techniques of evaluation with suitable illustrations. Further as we all know that all the students in the class are not with same mental ability. It is not only that we bother only for the backward students or retarded students but we should also should take   care to identify the talented or gifted students of the class and nurture their mathematical abilities.

         This perspective has been also discussed here in brief. At last a detail idea has been presented on the analysis of a textbook in mathematics.

1.2 Evaluation of learning in Mathematics

         Assessment and evaluation are integral component of any educational process. They not only  provide   feedback   about   learners,   but   also   about   the   effectiveness   of   the   curriculum, programmes   and   policies.   We   often   use   the   term   –   Assessment   and   Evaluation interchangeably,  but  it  is  important  for  us  to  distinguish  between  them.  The  meanings  and scope of these terms, as applied to educational setup, are explained below:

Assessment is defined as the process of obtaining and documenting the information about the subject,  skills,  attitudes  and  beliefs  of  the  learners. It  is  an  interactive  process  between students and teachers that informs teachers about the effectiveness of their teaching and level of  students’  understanding/  learning.  Assessment provides feedback for  the  purpose  of evaluation of learning outcomes and future performance. When we say that we are “assessing a student’s competence,” we mean that we are collecting information to help us decide the degree to which the student has achieved the learning targets.

A large number of assessment techniques- formal and   informal observations of students, paper-pencil tests, projects, assignments, etc. can be used to gather information. Evaluation is defined as the process of making a ‘value judgment’ i.e., assessment about the worth of a student’s performance.  So through assessment of  the  student,  the  evaluation  is carried out. An  assessment  is  authentic,  is  the  assessment  procedures  match  with  what  children  are learning.   It   provides   them   with   the   feedback   about   their   progress   in   mastering   new knowledge.  Authentic assessment  acknowledges  that  learners  learn  differently  and  hence should get opportunity to express their learning in multiple ways.

1.3 Meaning of Evaluation

         We, as teachers of mathematics, aim at making sure that our pupils learn mathematics and learn it well. The final test of a curriculum is its effectiveness in fostering learning. Every teacher has to find out the progress pupils have made towards accepted objectives.

Thus evaluation  is  concerned  with  the  improvement  of  instruction.  It involves decisions regarding the effectiveness of the total instructional programme.

What is the meaning of evaluation?

Your answers may include some or all of the following activities:

·   Giving tests,

·   asking questions in the classroom,

·   checking homework assignments, and

·   organizing a quiz programme in mathematics.

All these activities are included in evaluation, but that is not all.

         When we talk of evaluation in the mathematics classroom, we try to determine the amount and  quality  of  pupil  understanding  and  achievement  in  mathematics  based  upon  clearly defined objectives. This means that a comprehensive range of objectives are evaluated rather than just the imbibing of the subject matter.

"Why do we need to evaluate?”

      You may have thought of some or all of the following purposes or reasons of evaluation.

·   to find out how much mathematics our students have learnt,

·   to identify which students are weak in mathematics,

·   to keep a record of their progress for reporting to the principal and to parents, and

·   to recommend promotion to the next class or detention in the same class.

But this is  not  an  exhaustive  list. Evaluation  not  only  says  something  about  student performance, it reflects on the teaching also. Evaluation is important for both the teacher and

the student. Let us find out how evaluation helps a teacher to teach better.

1.4 Evaluation for Improvement of Instruction

         By now we know that before you teach we have to plan our lessons. While planning for

Instruction we have to keep in mind both the content as well as the students who have to learn. The students in our class are likely to have a wide range of previous knowledge and experience. They may also be operating at different levels of learning in the content you are planning to teach.

For example, you want to teach applications of logarithms and one such application is simplification of exponential expressions of the type (ab)n. You will have to assess whether your students can use a table of logarithms, recall laws of indices or solve a linear equation before you plan the learning experiences. Not only this, you will also have to assess the levels of understanding of your students.  Levels of understanding are associated with structures of mathematical relationships.

For example, while solving (4 x 5⅟2)2 the student who chooses (4 x5⅟2) 2 = (16⅟2 x 5⅟2) 2

= 80 is better than the student who solves it as (4) 2  x (51/2)2= 16 x 5 = 80

Diagnostic evaluation:

The first student has higher level of insight into the relationship than the one who sticks to the original structure.  This information  about  the  individual  student  will  help  you  design meaningful  learning  experiences  for  him.  The teacher should be concerned about the identification of the levels of learning of his her students before teaching a new unit. This kind of evaluation is called diagnostic evaluation.

As far as planning the content is concerned, evaluation again can serve as a useful guide to you  because  for  sequencing  your  content  you  need  to  know  how  long  it  takes  to  master  a given concept, the relative ease or difficulty of tasks and the support material or teaching aids that are suitable for teaching a particular concept or topic.

Formative evaluation:

During the period of instruction you need to monitor the learning progress of your students and diagnose their learning difficulties.  Again you will be evaluating to get a systematic feedback about how your students are progressing with the lesson as well as about how your plans are working. This is called formative evaluation. You evaluate content a little more comprehensively by asking oral questions, giving classwork and using observation during the instructional phase.

Summative evaluation:

         After  you  finish  teaching  the  unit  you  will  be  interested  to  determine  the  extent  of  your students' achievements and competence in the unit taught. In other words, you will evaluate their achievement. This is called summative evaluation and is done at the completion of a unit, term or year. It helps you to grade your students to provide data for school records as well as for reporting to parents. Again evaluation helps you to discharge your responsibility of reporting pupil progress.

Thus, you have seen how evaluation helps you to become effective at all the three stages

instruction. viz. planning, instructional and evaluative stages.

1.5 Tools and techniques of evaluation (Scholastic and non-Scholastic areas)

Evaluation of Students in the school is a continuous process. As school curriculum consists of Scholastic and non-Scholastic areas, it is necessary that evaluation is also done on the both Scholastic and non-Scholastic areas.

The Scholastic areas include assessment of learning in academic areas like, Maths, English, Science, Social science, History, etc the subjects responsible for cognitive development (Cognitive domain) of the students. Evaluation of this area can be done through written/oral tests, assessment of practical activities, projects, etc.

Evaluation should be comprehensive, that is different areas besides cognitive or scholastic areas, non-Scholastic areas (Affective and Psychomotor domain) need to be considered. For the purpose of assessment of these areas, tools like observation, questionnaires, inventories, interviews, etc are used. However, in face-to-face mode, observation is the most commonly used tool in day-to-day classes. Within non-scholastic areas, attendance of students, social adjustment, physical development, moral uprightness, emotional balance, aesthetic sensibilities, etc should be assessed.  

1.6 TEACHER MADE TEST VS STANDARDISED TEST

Learners, we have already come to know that educational tests are broadly classified as standardized achievement test and teacher made test. The difference between the standardized achievement tests and teachermade tests is not that of construction procedure, but one of sophistication in the techniques involved. Following are the major differences between standardized test and teacher-made tests-

·   Standardized tests are sophisticated measurement tools and constructed by test experts. They are beyond the scope of working teachers in terms of time, effort and expertise. Teacher-made tests, on the other hand, form part of the normal duties of the teachers.

·   Standardized tests are commercially produced tests and governed rigidly by some procedures to meet the demands of objectivity and accuracy. The teacher-made tests, on the other hand, are not governed rigidly by such processes. The teacher, who makes the test, uses his discretion in matters of the scope of test area and choice of task types and items.

·   A teacher-made test is designed to operate within the restricted situation of a given classroom. But a standardized test is designed for a larger operational situation crossing the barriers of a classroom.

·   Standardized tests cover broad areas of subject matter. The test content is determined by extensive investigations of the existing syllabus, textbooks, and programmes. The sampling of content is done systematically. Teacher-made tests are designed according to the content and objectives of a particular unit of study.

·   Development of standardized tests involve substantial costs. But teacher-made tests are easy to prepare.

·   Since items of standardized tests are well written, these tests possess a high degree of validity and reliability than teacher-made tests.

·   One of the chief merits of standardized test over a teacher-made test is that the standardized tests are accompanied by carefully established norms. But the presence of such norm is lacking in case of teacher-made tests.

Tools for evaluation of Scholastic area:

Several item-formats are available to suit different occasions of use. The test constructor must also decide on the most appropriate item form for the test material. The choice of a format in a practical situation of test construction depends on the following--

1) The learning content of the test- whether the content can be exploited to fit into the frame of a format.

2) The immediate purpose of the test and

3) The environment and duration of the test.

There are different types of test items which are used in different Teacher-made tests. These test items are classified from a different point of views as below–

(a) Selection Type Items: One major class of test items is selection type items. Selection type items present the answer to the learner along with the item and require the student to select the correct responses from among several alternatives or indicate whether the information presented is correct or incorrect. Selection type items require recognition of the correct response. So, these items are called recognition or selection type items.

(b) Supply-Type Items: Some other items, called recall or supply items require the student to actually construct a response. Example of this type includes short answer, completion item, essay question, and mathematical and physics or other sciences problem. These items require the production of a response, not a choice among a set of clearly labelled alternatives.

(c) Performance Type Items: The third class of items includes answers in which the student must perform a task, such asplaying a musical instrument, painting a picture etc. These are performance items. One can even devise a format to one's specific requirement if the available ones do not suit them. But most commonly, these test items are classified as objective tests items and essay type / subjective test items.

i. Objective test items

         Simply, an objective type test is one which is free from any subjective bias either from the tester or the marker. It refers to any written test that requires the examinee to select the correct answer from among one or more of several alternatives or supply a word or two. They are pinpointed, definite and so clear that a single, definite answer is expected. An objective type test can always be scored objectively. Thus scoring will not vary from examiner to examiner. These test items are relatively easy to administer, score, and analyze. It is worth mentioning that writing high-quality items do require substantial time. Similarly, although subjectivity is removed from the scoring process, a substantial degree of subjectivity exists in the determination of content to be covered by these items.

Merits of Objective Type Test: Merits of objective type items are mentioned below-

·       The sampling of the objective examination is more representatives and so the measurement is more extensive.

·       Scoring is not subjective. It can be scored objectively and easily. The scoring will not vary from time to time or from examiner to examiner.

·       This test reduces (a) the role of luck and (b) cramming of expected questions. As a result, there is greater reliability and better content validity.

·       It eliminates the effect of extraneous (irrelevant) factors such as- poor vocabulary, poor handwriting, poor spelling, poor grammar, the speed of writing, fluency of expression, literary style, neatness, etc.

·       It possesses the economy of time, for it takes less time to answer than an essay test. Comparatively, many test items can be presented to students. It also saves a lot of time of the scorer.

·       It measures the higher mental processes of understanding, application, analysis, prediction, and interpretation.

Limitations of Objective Type Test: These test items have some limitation also. These are -

·       Construction of the objective test items is difficult while answering them is quite easy.

·       Generally, it measures factual knowledge only. It encourages memory work even without understanding.

·       It does not help in nor encourage the development of the ability of the students to organize matter, ability to express their ideas, ability to present matter logically and in a coherent fashion, etc.

·       As guessing is possible it is easier to cheat in an objective examination than in essay examination

Some formats of commonly used test objective type items are discussed below with brief notes on their design, the situation of use and merits and demerits.

(a) Multiple-choice Items: Multiple-choice items are widely used and are regarded as highly valuable test items. They can measure almost all important educational outcomes- knowledge, understanding, application, problem-solving, prediction etc. Multiple-choice items require a learner to choose the right answer from among the given options, which are normally four, but sometimes three or five.

         A multiple-choice item consists of two parts-an incomplete statement or a question known as stem and a set (usually 4 or 5) alternatives or options from among which the correct answer known as 'key' is to be picked out. The other alternatives are known as distractors.

Distractors on multiple-choice items often are chosen to represent the most frequent incorrect responses. The alternatives provide the basis for inferring whether the students possess the desired knowledge. Only one of the options could be the correct answer in a multiple-choice item and the 'key' of an item could never include two or more of the given options. But several variations of the traditional multiple-choice format are sometimes encountered.

Illustration

The 7 + 8 = ? (Stem in the form of a statement)

(a) 15 (Key)

(b) 51

(c) 07

(d) 08                                                                  Distractors : (b) (c) (d)

         Although multiple-choice items are generally, used only for testing factual material if properly designed they can be used to test complex intellectual skills like interpretation, reasoning, and discrimination. They are less susceptible to guessing. However, good multiplechoice items are difficult and time-consuming to construct. Even the best multiple-choice items which claim to measure reasoning ability may prove to be a test of memory.

(b) True-false Items: A true-false item is a declarative statement. An item of this format requires the learner to choose an answer for each item from two alternatives. The alternative, in this case, is the same for all the items in the item set, as- True / False, Yes / No, Right /Wrong etc. If the learner considers the statement true he put a tick in the relevant alternative. An example of this type of item is given below –

Direction: Consider each of the following statements. If the statement is true put tick (√)on True and if is false tick (√)on False given inside of the bracket.

(a) The mean is a measure of the dispersion of a set of test scores. (True/False)

(b) Religious tolerance means allowing people to believe what they wish (True/False)

         In this type of item, statements should be clearly true or false not partially true and partially false so that there is no ambiguity about their correctness and no clue to correct answer. It is better to include approximately equal numbers of true and false statements and arrange them in a random order. Generally, true-false items are re stricted to factual content, to situations in which there is agreement as to the correct response.

         This format can be used to test applications and comprehension of principles. Because a statement may be true or false, true-false items are more susceptible to guessing than any other types. True-false items are more appropriate with younger children and when a quick superficial estimate is needed.

(c) Matching Type Items: In matching type examiners are required to match one set of items with the other. Matching items consist of two paralleled lists, one consisting of a series of stimulus words or phrases and the other containing a series of responses. The student's task is to match. This type of items can be used when the content material has a number of related concepts such as, terms and their symbols / their definitions, words and their meaning / their opposites / their inflected forms, discoveries or inventions and their discoverers or inventors / date of discoveries or inventions, animal and their habitat, chemical and their properties / uses, name of apparatus and their functions, authors and their works and so on. An example of matching type Item is given below.

Direction: Match the words in column 'A' with their explanation in column 'B'

     A                                                                     B

1. Planetary                                                 a. relating to sun

2. Celestial                                                  b. relating to the moon

3. Terrestrial                                               c. relating to a planet

4. Solar                                                        d. relating to the sky or heavens

5. Lunar                                                       e. relating to the earth or its inhabitants

                                                                     f. relating to the stars

         In preparing matching item all parts of a single matching item should cover homogeneous material, that is, all should refer to dates, all to names, all to places and so on. Each stimulus word should have only one correct response to each stimulus word. There should be more items in the second column than the first.

         Matching items are essentially multiple-choice items. They have many of the same advantages and limitations and uses as multiple-choice items. They are efficient to test the capacity for finding out relationship and association. They are comparatively easy to construct. But these items give more emphasis on knowledge of facts and memory.

(d) Completion Type Questions: This type of items serves the same purposes as the simple Questions do. The format comprises an incomplete statement. The student is to write in a number, or a word or a phrase so as to complete the statement. We must take care to see that the part of the statement, that is given, makes sense enough to ascertain what information is expected in the blank to complete the statement. There should be only one possible answer for each. In the statement, one significant keyword is to be omitted.

For example

(i) Example of  an Even number is …….. ( 3 / 4)

(ii) Sum of interior angles of triange is …….. degree. ( 900 , 1800)

           Completion type items are highly thought-provoking and stimulating. They suggest a definite direction for answers. They require the examinee to be relevant and precise. They provide wider coverage of content and take less time to score. As in the case of simple question, here also the use of text must be minimized. This is a supply type item. This type of items takes longer time than other recognition types items.

ii. Very Short Answer type: This is a conventional type of instrument used to measure the lower order of knowledge and comprehension. It presents a direct question, or a specific direction or a stimulus and the student is to give as a response a number, a word, a phrase or a sentence. This may be useful when we need to elicit short clear-cut answers. While framing this kind of items we must take care to minimize the use of textbook expressions. Typically, the student is asked to reply with a word, phrase, name, or sentence, rather than a more extended response.

Example--

(a) What is the formula for calculating Profit from given SP and CP?

 (b) What is the chemical formula for sulfuric acid?

 iii. Short Answer type: This is also a conventional type of item. In these items, an examinee is required to supply his/her own answer, but the answer is given in short and may consist of a few sentences or paragraphs.

         This is a subjective type of item. This type of item can be used to measure even higher order abilities like analysis, synthesis, and evaluation besides measuring the skills of comprehension and application.

But sufficient mastery over the use of language required answering the question. These items provide better samplings of the syllabus. Followings are examples of this type of item.

·       What is difference between Simple Interest and Compound Interest?

·       Fid the Value of ‘x’  (3x +1) ( x-5)= 12

iv. Essay Type or Long- Answer Type Questions: A subjective test is generally a test which needs answers in form of essay, explanation or description. When a teacher uses subjective test questions, which means students need to use their mind and feelings to make logical claims. The essay test item is a typical example of the subjective type test item. They have a long tradition behind them; hence, essay type tests are nicknamed as traditional type tests. Essay type tests require long written response inform of an essay up to several paragraphs as an answer to the question. The examinee has full freedom of expression and organization of his thoughts.

         Response to essay questions may also reflect student's attitudes, creativity and verbal fluency -factors that may or may not be relevant to the purpose of the testing. The task that an essay question requires may be varied in nature and on different levels. Some of the task are -selective recall, evaluating recall, comparison of two things on a single designated basis, comparison of two things in general, decision for or against cause or effect, explanation of the use or exact meaning of some phrase or statement in a passage, summary of some unit of the text,  discussion, criticism, relevance and so on.

         Essay questions sometimes impose a restriction on the length of response expected of the learner. Sometimes they leave it open (unrestrained). It would be advisable to avoid allowing long answer questions to be too open with regard to the scope and the length of the answer. It would also be advised not to leave them vague and ambiguous in their wording. Essay type item should not be too general or excessively detailed.

Merits of Essay Type items

Essay items, if carefully planned can serve useful functions. It has some distinct merits such as -

·       A primary advantage of essay questions is that they assess certain skills and ability, particularly organization, integration, and evaluation, ability to appreciate, argue, elaborate, summarize, synthesizes etc. more effectively than do other item formats.

Thus, there are some aspects of learning that can be adequately measured by these items.

·       Because of the semi-structured nature, the student, usually, can approach an answer for several equally valid angles, thus yielding flexibility which is not found in any other formats. Hence, these are an effective device, to test originality.

·       These items are able to test higher mental processes. They demand thinking and recall in place of mere recognition. They require learning of fact and their relationships rather than knowledge in isolation.

·       Style of writing, ability to write clearly and correctly is very desirable educational objectives. Essay item evaluates the expression, command over language literary style etc. very easily and conveniently.

·       Faking and guessing are minimized in case of essay item as with other recall items.

·       The length of the response allows the student to treat an area in depth.

·       They are easy to construct and apply.

Demerits of Essay Type items: Demerits of Essay type items are --

·       Essay items do not provide a representative sampling of the content domain.

·       They favour verbosity. There is an overemphasis on expression. Hence, students who can play with language have a better chance of success than those who express their idea in a precise manner. Thus, scoring may be influenced by irrelevant factors such as length of responses, neatness, writing etc.

·       To read and grade essay items is a time-consuming task.

·       They place undue emphasis on writing and speed.

·       Scoring of these items is greatly influenced by the subjectivity of the examiner or impressionistic marking.

·       Since each response will be different, comparing students who used different information and approached the problem from different angles is a problematic task.

Tools for evaluation of Non-Scholastic area:

1. OBSERVATION

Observation is a technique which deals with the external behaviour in controlled or uncontrolled situations. It deals with recording the changes taking place during the process of occurrence of a phenomenon, i.e., individual, event or object. In case of human beings, there are certain traits like honesty, punctuality, persistence, truthfulness, etc., which can hardly be measured objectively through paper-pencil tests. This being the case, observation is an appropriate technique to measure the ‘change’. The behaviour of the learner in the classroom, in the playground, in the institution, among his/her peer group, in social situations can be observed. For example, you could ask the students about their sportsmanship and you could ask the teachers how they handle inattentive students in their classrooms, but more objective information would probably be obtained by actually observing students at a sporting event and teachers in the classroom.

In the context of distance education if the instructional system of an institution includes face-to-face tutorials, the behaviour of tutors as well as the students’ behaviour can be included in evaluation (Video films of the tutorial sessions, for instance, can be made and also be used in tutor training). An observation is purposeful when it is well planned, carefully focussed and thoroughly recorded. Working within a particular environment over a period of time, an observer may become so familiar that he/she subconsciously becomes selective in what is seen. Validity increases by keeping the setting as natural as possible. By making observation more systematic, it is often easier to focus on particular aspects and to collect specific information.

Observational data especially that gained through participant observation permits the evaluator to understand a situation or a programme-setting to an extent not entirely possible using only the insights of others obtained through interviews. Of course, not everything can be directly observed or experienced, and participant observation is highly time-consuming and, relatively, an expensive evaluation strategy.

The primary purpose of observational description is to take the reader of an evaluation report into the programme-setting that was observed. This means that observational data must have depth and detail. The data must be highly descriptive so that the reader can understand what occurred and how. The evaluation observer becomes the surrogate eyes and ears of the reader. The descriptions must be factually accurate and without irrelevant matter.

To sum up, we can say that the first criterion to apply to a reported observation is the extent to which that observation permits the reader to enter into the programme situation observed. Evaluation data collection through observation is demanding work. Validity in qualitative method depends to a great extent on the skill, competence and rigour of the evaluator because the observer is the instrument.

Types of Observation

There is a spectrum of styles of observing: from the non-structured to the highly structured, and from the observer as participant in the activity, to the observer as non-participant, perhaps even using a video camera. Two types of observation are generally used in an evaluation effort. They are:

i) Non-structured observation: Non-structured or open or natural observation allows the collection of a rich variety of information. In such situations the observer, while being present at the site, does not control or manipulate anything. It is a technique of many social anthropologists. Here the observer enters the observation site with as open a mind as possible. He/she can see the things and record them in a natural setting. However, practice and skills are needed by the observer in drawing

his or her experience and judgement to focus upon, and record events considered being important. It must be realised that however experienced the observer, only a fraction of the interactions and events occuring will be seen and recorded. For this reason, it is often valuable to focus upon certain aspects of the event, object, etc., being observed. For example, behaviour in a counselling session -- behaviour of the counsellor, behaviour of the learners, and the interaction between the counsellor and learners — can best be assessed through natural observation.

ii) Structured observation: An evaluator observes the phenomenon under structured conditions, with the knowledge of the person(s) being observed. The observation situation may also be simulated and observed. This technique allows the evaluator to observe particular behaviours. For example, a teacher, trainee observes the role play in a teacher-parent conference, etc. The major disadvantage of this type of observation is that it is not natural, and the behaviour exhibited by people may not be the behaviour that would occur in a natural setting. People may behave the way they think they should behave rather than the way they normally would. A checklist to be used during the observation process is valuable to have accurate records of the behaviour expressed.

Recording Information from Observation

Information may be recorded through a variety of methods, some of which are:

·       Field notes;

·       observation schedules or checklists;

·       audio recording; and

·       video recording.

These can be used individually or collectively.

Uses and Limitations of Observation

·       Some of the uses and limitations of observation are given below:

·       It helps us to get First hand information;

·       Certain traits like honesty, punctuality, truthfulness, etc., can be observed;

·       Structured observation yields objective and accurate data;

·       The observer codes and records the overt behaviour at the time of its occurrence;

However, the tendency of an observer to let overall feeling towards an individual or an initial impression affect subsequent observations; and A ‘subject’ may intentionally attempt to exhibit artificial behaviour.

Observation Schedule:

Observing students as they solve problems, model skills to others, think aloud during a sequence of activities or interact with peers in different learning situations provides insight into student learning and growth. The teacher finds out under what conditions success is most likely, what individual students do when they encounter difficulty, how interaction with others affects their learning and concentration, and what students need to learn next. Observations may be informal or highly structured, and incidental or scheduled over different periods of time in different learning contexts.

Observation schedule allow teachers to record information quickly about how students perform in relation to specific outcomes from the program of studies. Observation schedule, written in a yes/no format can be used to assist in observing student performance relative to specific criteria. They may be directed toward observations of an individual or group. These tools can also include spaces for brief comments, which provide additional information not captured in the schedule.

Before you use an observation schedule, ensure students understand what information will be gathered and how it will be used. Ensure checklists are dated to provide a record of observations over a period of time.

Tips for Using Observation schedule

·       Determine specific outcomes to observe and assess.

·       Decide what to look for. Write down criteria or evidence that indicates the student is demonstrating the outcome.

·       Ensure students know and understand what the criteria are.

·       Target your observation by selecting four to five students per class and one or two specific outcomes to observe.

·       Develop a data gathering system, such as a clipboard for anecdotal notes, a checklist or rubric, or a video or audio recorder.

·       Collect observations over a number of classes during a reporting period and look for patterns of performance.

·       Date all observations.

·       Share observations with students, both individually and in a group. Make the observations specific and describe how this demonstrates or promotes thinking and learning. For example; "Eric, you contributed several ideas to your group's Top Ten list. You really helped your group finish their task within the time limit."

·       Use the information gathered from observation to enhance or modify future instruction.

Example: Figure below is an example of Observation schedule while students are engaged in a group activity.

2. CHECK LIST

The behaviour of the students differs in different situations. The teacher’s observation and record of the behaviour of a particular student plays an important role in evaluation procedure. Check list is a tool which helps the teacher to record the student’s performance in specific activities. Check list usually contain list of behaviours, characteristics that are either present or absent.

A checklist to record the student’s performance in performing geometrical construction is given below:

The checklist enables to note the presence of an event, behaviour, characteristics of a student by marking tick mark in the column meant for that behaviour trait. After filling the check list, you can use it for planning the modification of your strategy facilitating for better learning. The particular checklist allows the teacher to check the skills in which the student need further training, characteristics of student’s behaviour. If you are using such a check list for observing group behaviour, then you have to look for the activities of the majority members of the group and try to note the behaviour of the deviants along with the observed behaviours included in your checklist

The check list is useful for you in a variety of ways. These can be adopted for a number of purposes according to the need of the students/ teachers and class. Learning outcome which involve process and personal social development can be easily evaluated by recording evidences of growth in respect of specific learning outcomes. In evaluating the processes which can be divided into a series of clearly defined, distinct and specific actions, checklists are most useful. Check list is also very easy to prepare and simple to use.

3. RATING SCALE:

 ‘Rating’ is a term applied to an expression of opinion or judgement regarding some situation, object, character, or an attribute. A ‘Rating scale’ refers to a ‘scale’ with a set of points which describe varying degrees of the dimension of an attribute being observed. Rating scales can be self-report instruments or observation instruments depending upon how they are used. These are different types of rating scales such as:

i) numerical scales;

ii) graphic scales;

iii) standard scales;

iv) rating by cumulative points; and

v) forced choice ratings.

We shall discuss them below in the same order.

i) Numerical scales

In a typical numerical scale, a sequence of defined number is supplied to a rater or to an observer. The rater or the observer assigns to each stimulus to be rated an appropriate number in line with these definitions or descriptions. For example, the following scale may be used in obtaining ratings of the affective values of colours:

10) Most pleasant imaginable

9)     Most pleasant

8)     Extremely pleasant

7)     Moderately pleasant

6)     Mildly pleasant

5)     Indifferent

4)     Mildly unpleasant

3)     Moderately unpleasant

2)     Extremely unpleasant

1)     Most unpleasant

0)     Most unpleasant imaginable.

The use of negative numbers is not favoured, as those observers or raters who are not well versed in Algebra find it difficult to manage negative numbers. Numerical rating scales are the easiest to construct and to apply. They are also the simplest in terms of handling the results. However, numerical scales are often rejected in favour of other types of scales because it is believed that they suffer from various biases and errors.

ii) Graphic scales

The graphic scale is the most popular and the most widely used type of rating scale. In this scale a straight line is drawn, vertically or horizontally, with various clues to help the rater. The line is either segmented into units or is continuous. If the line is segmented, the number of segments can be varied from case to case. Given below is an example of such a scale.

How effective was the teacher in the class?

Very Effective Slightly Effective Average   Slightly ineffective     Very ineffective

         There are many advantages in graphic scales. They are simple and easy to administer. Such scales are interesting to the rater and require little added motivation. However, scoring in the case of some formats of graphic scale is rather laborious.

iii) Standard scales

In standard scales, a set of standards is presented to the rater. The standards are usually objects of the same kind to be rated with pre-established scale values. For example, scales of handwriting provide several standard specimens that have previously been spread over a common scale by some standardized procedure like regular intervals. With the help of these standards specimens, a new sample of handwriting can be equated to one of the standards judged as being between two standards. The ‘man-to-man scale’ and the ‘portrait-matching’ scale are the other two forms that conform more or less to the principles of standard scales.

iv) Rating by cumulated points

The unique and distinctive feature of rating by cumulated points is its immense and easy utility of scoring. The rating score for an attribute object or individual is the sum or average of the weighted or unweighted points. The ‘check-list method’ and the ‘guess-who technique’ belong to this category of rating. ‘Check-list methods’ are applicable in the evaluation of the performance of personnel in a job. The weights of +1 and -1 are assigned respectively to every favourable and unfavourable trait and the individual’s score is the algebraic sum of the weights. In the ‘guess who technique’ some statements in terms of some ‘descriptions’ like “here is one who is always doing bad things to make others sad”, are constructed and each individual is asked to list all the members of his/her group who fit such a description, mentioning the same individual as many times as necessary. Each individual

scores a point for each favourable or unfavourable description applied to him/ her, and the total score is the sum total of all such points.

v) Forced choice ratings

In ‘forced-choice rating’ methods, the rater is asked not to say whether the rate has a certain trait or to say how much of a trait the rate has, but to say essentially whether he has some or one trait or another of a pair.

Uses of rating scales

i)  Rating methods consume much less time than other methods of scaling like ‘pair comparison’ and ‘rank ordering’.

ii) Rating methods are quite interesting to the raters, especially if graphic methods are used.

iii)   Best ratings can be obtained by presenting one stimulus to a rater at a time.

iv)   Rating scales can be used with raters who have very little training in this area.

v) Rating methods can be used with a large number of stimuli.

vi)   Rating scales have a much wider range of application and can be used for teacher-ratings, personality ratings, school appraisals, sociological surveys, etc.

Limitations of rating scales

Rating scales have several limitations. Some of them are discussed here:

i)  Error of leniency: There is a constant tendency among the raters to rate those whom they know well or in whom they are involved higher than they should. Such raters are called ‘easy raters’. Some raters become aware of the temptation of easy rating and consequently rate individuals lower than they should. Such raters are called ‘hard raters’. The leniency error refers to a general and consistent tendency for a rater to rate too high or too low for whatever reasons.

ii) Error of central tendency: Most of the raters hesitate to rate the individuals on the extremes of the scale, instead they tend to rate the individual on the middle of the scale. Obviously, the results get distorted.

iii)   Halo-effect: Halo-effect is an error which obscures the clusters of traits within an individual. The rater forms a general opinion about the person’s merit and his/her ratings on specific traits are greatly inuenced by this general impression. It results in a spurious positing of a correlation among the traits which are rated.

iv)   The logical error: is due to the fact that raters are likely to give similar ratings for traits which they feel are logically related to each other.

v) The contrast error: The contrast error is due to the tendency of a rater to rate others in the opposite direction (contrasting) from himself/herself to each other.

The proximity error: It has been seen that adjacent traits on a rating trend to inter-correlate higher than remote ones, their degree of actual similarity being approximately equal. This error may be counteracted to some extent by placing similar traits further apart and the different ones close together.

Example of a TOOL (rating scale on participation of a student in school activities)

Please encircle the number on the right of each question indicating the level of active involvement of the student as per your observation and judgment.

1- Unsatisfactory, 2- Below average,  3-Average, 4- Above average, 5- Outstanding

Statements                                                             Grade

1. Student is active in class projects.              1      2      3      4     5

2.The student relates to his peers.                   1      2      3      4     5

3.The student participates in group discussion.  1      2      3      4     5   

4.Student is active in sports activities.           1      2      3      4     5

5. Student is active in club activities.             1      2      3      4     5

          The above rating scale is a 5-point scale, where the student’s behaviour is rated as outstanding(5), above average(4), average(3), below average(2),and unsatisfactory(1). Similarly you can also prepare 3-point rating scales. The qualitative descriptions can be quantified by encircling the appropriate number signifying the emphasis given by the cater on the behaviour of the student.

4. QUESTIONNAIRE

To assess various traits of student behaviour, a questionnaire found to be effective. Consider the limitation of interview as discussed earlier. Interviewing a large number of respondents is time consuming and need a lot of labour. On the other hand, a questionnaire is a viable alternative to save time and energy. At a time a large number of respondents can give information through a questionnaire. In a questionnaire, some items on the issue/topic are placed in a written form. The respondents have to answer the questions. The questions should be such that those elicit facts and not opinions. The facts or information provided as the response to questions can be verified or cross checked. Analysing the answers we can arrive at appropriate and valid conclusions. For example, information about the engagements of children in learning activities at home and the type and frequency of support provided by the family after school hours can be elicited through a well prepared questionnaire.

A Questionnaire is useful in providing adequate, accurate, unbiased data as required. On the basis of the objective and purposes of information, the items (questions) for a questionnaire are developed. Then the questionnaire is administered to the respondents. It may be kept in mind that the respondents should be made aware that their responses will be kept anonymous. After that, the data collected are analysed.

5. INTERVIEW

We use the term ‘interview’ to indicate a process of communication or interaction in which an interviewee gives information verbally in a face-to-face situation. An interview is essential to assess certain inner (mental) traits. Interviews in a congenial atmosphere where personal rapport has been established can succeed in bringing out the inner feelings of the interviewee. The main objective of an interview may be the exchange of ideas and experiences, the eliciting of information pertaining to a wide range of data in which the interviewee may wish to rehearse his/her past and, present, and canvass his/her future possibilities.

Interview questions

An ideal qualitative interview is normally semi-structured. To prepare for an interview one should construct an interview protocol that allows for maximum exibility during the interview process. One should formulate two or three lead-off questions before an interview. These leadoff questions help to open up a topic domain that one wishes a subject to address. They should be formulated very concretely and abstract questions should be avoided.

When writing these questions, we may try to anticipate the possible directions in which the conversation could go and then formulate possible questions. Thus, while formulating interview questions the method should be two or three lead-off questions for each domain, a list of questions covering the covert categories for each domain, and a set of possible follow-up questions for each domain.

Interviewer responses

It would be helpful to categorise interviewer responses into types. The different types of interviewer responses are:

i) Bland encouragement: Usually one word and/or facial expressions that show attention, interest and acceptance. These are excellent for establishing rapport and encouraging the interviewees to keep talking.

ii) Non-leading leads: Sometimes leading questions may not elicit more material on a certain topic and to indicate interest and attention one has to add something, like “Oh tell me more about that! This is interesting. Keep telling me about it.”

iii) Active listening: Active listening responses are the establishing of a rapport and helping subjects to open up about certain things.

Interview analysis

Interview analysis, of course, will have many unarticulated but referenced meanings associated with it. To uncover them we need only to go through the steps and correlate the interview conversation as per the content of the subject. The final analysis developed in a qualitative way will draw upon strips of foot-notes and associated segments of the interview manuscript.

In the above discussion, we have treated observation and interview skills as two separate qualitative data collection techniques. In practice, however, they are typically fully integrated approaches.

Types of Interviews

Interviews may be classified according to the purpose for which they are used and according to their design and structure. For purposes of research, an interview may be used as a tool gathering data required by the researcher to test a hypothesis or solve his/her problems of historical, experimental, survey or case study type research. This type of interview is called ‘research interview’. In many situations the objective of an interview is to secure information about individuals’ problems, their past history, job or family adjustment. Here the major purposes of interviews are diagnosis and treatment. This type of interview is termed a ‘clinical interview’. It is used by social workers and psychiatrists.

In some situations, an interviewer may interview one individual at a time. It is called an ‘individual interview’. Further, telephone interviews are used when information is needed in a short span of time. In a ‘group interview’ a group of individuals is interviewed by an interviewer. Group interviews have been more effective with students who have completed a particular course. Interviews are classified as ‘structured’ and ‘unstructured’. A ‘structured interview’ involves the interviewer asking specific predefined questions. These questions are carefully planned and the major areas of inquiry are mapped out. However, the interviewee is given considerable freedom to express his/her opinion. In this type of interview the interviewer uses a highly standardised form as a ‘directive interview’ because often the interviewee is directed to say ‘yes/no’ or give very brief answers. Unstructured interviews are also designated as ‘uncontrolled’, unguided, or ‘non-directive’. In this type of interview, the interviewer does not follow a system or list of predetermined questions. Used with skill, unstructured interviews can yield information which may not emerge when we use any other technique. Group interviews may provide valuable insights especially in situations where people have differences of opinion.

Sometimes, the interviewees are encouraged to relate their concrete experiences with no or little direction from the interviewer, to dwell on whatever events seem significant to them, to provide their own definition of their social situations, or reveal their opinions and views as they feel fit. Although the unstructured interview is conducted through an informal discussion, a series of questions to be asked and the procedure to be followed are decided upon in advance. The interviewer is largely free to arrange the form and timing of the questions. He/she can rephrase the questions, modify them, and add some new questions to his/her list.

This technique is very useful for collecting information in the context of improving learning. The interviewer takes advantage of the exibility of non-structured techniques, to maintain the desired focus. For example, few staff members in an institution of higher education attend an ‘induction course’. Formal evaluation of the effectiveness of the course is undertaken half way through and/or at the end. Results from these, help to incorporate changes into the present course and help in the design of future courses. One technique used to collect information is the unstructured interview. If it is in a counselling session, a schedule of issues to be raised during interviews is drawn up by the counsellors in consultation with the learners. Questions like ‘Do you consider the course to have been useful to you?’ are open-ended. Questions like “How long have you spent discussing the course with your learner?” are specific in nature. The latter types of questions generate more information than the former.

Techniques of Interviewing

Following are few techniques of interviewing here.

Preparing for an interview

It is necessary to plan carefully for an interview. The interviewer must decide what kind of data the interview should yield, whether the structured or unstructured type of interview will be more useful, and how the results should be recorded.

Conduct of interview

An interview is a stressful occasion on which every effort should be made to generate a calm atmosphere. You may not get a true picture of the ‘subjects’ if they find the situation intimidating. So, ensuring a cordial environment is an important task. Interview processes will be more effective if:

·       the interviewee is continuously reassured;

·       interruptions during the interview are avoided; and

·       seating arrangement should be given a thought, so that the candidate is not at a physical disadvantage.

Some general rules for conducting interviews:

i) Ask only one question at a time;

ii) Repeat a question if necessary;

iii) Try to make sure that the interviewee understands the questions;

iv) Be a good listener, remembering that smiles of encouragement and a friendly gaze show that you are interested;

v) Make sure the questions and answers stick to what is relevant. Allow the interviewee sufficient time to answer the question;

vi) Avoid suggesting answers to questions; and

vii) Do not show signs of surprise, shock, anger, if unexpected answers are given.

Closing the interview

After you have worked your way through your plan, the interviewee should be given an opportunity to ask questions. It is important to summarise and outline the next step. For example, approximately how long it will take to make a decision and how will it be informed. The interviewee should be finally thanked warmly for his/her co-operation and for attending the interview.

During the interview, information should be properly gathered. It is easy to record information arising out of a highly structured interview. The use of a tape recorder during the conduct of the interview not only eliminates the omissions, distortions, elaboration and other modifications of data usually found in a written interview, but it also provides an objective basis for evaluating the adequacy of the interview data in relation to the interview. If the tape recorder is not available, the use of a schedule, a structured formal questionnaire or a rating scale may be used. An open or unstructured interview is less easy to record. It is so easy to hear what one wants or expects to hear and to forget the not so desirable points made.

Objectivity can be aided by having more than one person recording the information and discussing the recorded information with the respondent.

Uses and Limitations of Interviews

i) An interviewee provides an opportunity to the interviewer to question the interview thoroughly in various areas of inquiry.

ii) An interview is not an entirely independent tool of research for gathering information pertaining to feelings, attitudes or emotions. It is supplementary to other tools and techniques.

iii) It is an effective tool for a social scientist in the study of human behaviour.

6. PROFILES

A profile is a portrayal of the characteristics of a person or institutions in relation to some kind of activity or another. Profiling is the task of recording information which has been commonly used in industries for many years for purposes of staff appraisal. Within the last 20 years profiles have acquired some importance in education also, especially in the schools and further education sectors in Britain. A single grade as a measurement of a person’s overall performance is regarded as unsatisfactory or ‘hazardous’. Profiles may therefore provide a means of overcoming this difficulty, and may also be used to give information about personal qualities and interests.

Profiles can provide a record of what has been achieved at any point of a course. Profile of the learner includes information about the learner’s educational background, socio-economic status, the cultural and environmental organisation etc. In distance education these aspects of a learner should be considered for specific evaluation activity by specialised services. The individual initial evaluation is aimed at defining the profile of each learner enrolled in a distance course. This gives an idea of and information about the learners’ cognitive framework at the beginning of the learning activity (placement evaluation). It also gives you an idea of the changes in the attitudes, skills, knowledge and experience after the learner engages herself/himself in a course during the intermediate period (formative evaluation), and helps you to know about the learners’ achievement at the end of a course (summative evaluation).

Profiles provide a focus for guidance and counselling and continuous feedback to the learners. They give us the end statement or a quantitative value. They are not a method of assessment but a tool for recording information. So profiles are considered a prerequisite for evaluation activities.

In our context, a profile is a panoramic representation alpha-numerical, graphical or verbal — of how a student seems to his/her assessors across a range of assessment methods. The use of profiles carries no stipulation about what should be assessed or how. They can be used in reporting any assessment. In other words, they are the means of recording information. Profiles can record the following information about a learner:

·       enrollment in specifications;

·       year of admission;

·       experiences/job/employment;

·       achievements; and

·       Personal bio-data.

One example of an academic profile in use in higher education in Birmingham is the Graduate Profile used by the Birmingham School of Architecture. Profiles are useful in a number of ways but chiey, they help identify aspects of a student’s work and ability which would not otherwise be systematically recorded. They contribute to the students’ knowledge of themselves and help future employers and colleagues know them better. Profiles do not claim to be predictive, nor do they mark the limits of a student’s potential.

Profiles explicitly state that they are internal records and will not be released outside without the written agreement of a student. Each student receives a copy of his/her own profile document. Thus the profile is private.

Types of Profiles

a) Grade profiles

These relate to examinations. Examinations in higher education are split into a number of sub-tests. Generally, it is argued that a better description of the candidate is possible if the results of the individual sub-tests are included in the score. In the 1970s this possibility was examined for GCE Engineering Science at A level in Britain and it was A Grade in 7 point scaling: ultimately it was concluded that it would cause more confusion than the single grade.

b) Criterion profiles

These have long been used in technical and professional education. One of the intentions of these student-profiles is to record student-progress. In that sense they are diagnostic. They help provide meaningful information to students in such a way that they can see realistic hurdles which have to be jumped if they want to improve their performance.

Disadvantage of the criterion form of profile is that it is scaled, and, as soon as that happens, the subjective view of the examiners comes into play. This suggests that anyone who is being assessed with forms of this kind should be assessed by two examiners at least, who should then agree as to the final score.

c) Learning profiles

At the University of Sydney, the Department of Anatomy devised a nine-week course using two complementary teaching techniques: self-instruction and group interaction. During the course at the end of each of the seven modules (7 weeks) the students were given tests which measured recall, comprehension, application, and short-chain problem-solving. At the end of the course there was a summative examination designed to test the capacity to solve long-chain multi-step problems. This was continued for four years. The results represent a measure of performance or learning curve which the authors of the course call ‘learning profile’. The learning profiles of each of the students were put together to obtain regression curves of the group as a whole. In addition, general ability, age and interest data were obtained. An anxiety test was administered and a learning styles test was conducted during the first and seventh week of the course.

An academic assessment profile is a multi-dimensional end-statement expressing the results of the formal assessment of a student’s performance. This tells us that learning profile is:

i) an end-statement — it is not a method of assessment but an official pronouncement about a student made at the end of his/her course or at some other specified period.

ii) multi-dimensional— the end-statement comprises observations of more than one features of a student’s abilities or achievements, unlike the classified degree which is undifferentiated.

iii) academic — it is not concerned with the non academic characteristics or activities of a student.

iv) assessment — it is confined to reporting the results of the (formal) academic assessment undergone by the student, and neither describes nor reproduces the work he/she has done.

Uses and Limitations of Profiles

Uses of a profile:

i) It is a means of recording information.

ii) It covers a wide range of experiences and skills and encourages a great variety of assessment techniques.

iii) Records and reports are meaningful for both learner and teacher.

iv) Profiles help to know the nature and sequence of student learning and assessment.

Limitations

i) It is just a process of attaching labels to learners rather than helping the learning process.

ii) Broad descriptions of skills and crude grades are open to casual judgments

7. PROJECTS

Projects are a feature of education in certain subject areas. The dissertation in the field of humanities is at times considered equivalent to a project in science. Projects are advocated for interdisciplinary studies because real-life situations require a variety of areas of knowledge and resources for their solution and also because people have had to work in teams. Projects have been used in mathematics to open up real situations for investigation and have also been employed to encourage students to read literature. For example, a study conducted in Napier College, Edinburgh, a librarian and a biologist have collaborated to help students to prepare three projects of increasing complexity involving detailed literature searches. The study claimed that this technique increased the student’s ability and willingness to read scientific literature, and that these attitudes persisted throughout the course.

Project work done by a student has not been confined to full time study. It has also been used in open education, covering varieties of problem areas, including evaluating a programme. Interestingly, a study shows that project work in the context of open/distance education found favour among staff and students. Some of the problems found (during the study mentioned above) seem to be general, and these relate to the amount of time required by tutor and student for guidance and work. The role of the supervisor at both graduate and undergraduate levels has been identified as an issue. Open University students need guidance in choosing a viable topic and in identifying, locating, and collecting information. This is also true of many students in undergraduate and school courses.

The British Open University finds, as do many others, that the amount and organization of individual support is problematic. For some departments it could be too costly. There is no doubt that some project work can be expensive. The general impression of project work is that it is favored by many students who are motivated and it provides ‘independence’. Some, however, suggested that project work is not all plain sailing.

Advantages

·       It provides motivation to the students.

·       It develops independent thinking in the learner.

·       The student develops the ability to formulate a problem and solve a problem while working in a project.

·       The ability to formulate a problem is a crucial skill: it separates those who can do projects from those who cannot.

Limitations

1.     “Own-tutor effect”.  Tutors may give their own students higher marks.

2.     The criteria for rating may vary from tutor to tutor and often reflects their specialization /research interest.

3.     The advice offered may be non-specific and characterisation of grades may be couched in general phrases.

4.     Rank ordering is difficult if the projects are dissimilar.

5.     Unreliability of grades does exist.

6.     It is difficult to discriminate between a structured, well defined project area and wide-ranging unstructured projects.

7.     Tutors’ specialisms may inuence their perception of particular projects.

8.     The criteria used by motors? When marking projects will affect the reliability of the grades awarded.

8. CASE STUDY

Case studies are in-depth investigation of an individual, a family, a school, or a group of children. In education, case studies are typically conducted to determine the background, environment, and characteristics of children with problems. By gathering pertinent data about the present status, past experience and other related incidents, we can develop understanding of the present behaviour and performance of a problem child like a truant, slow student, aggressive or depressed child. The qualitative analysis of these data is helpful in constructing a comprehensive and integrated picture of the case. In case study approach, the investigator (teacher) collects data from a particular individual and confine their interest to that individual as a unique case or collect data from a small group of individuals, which form a unit for in-depth study.

Case studies can be vertical (collecting information about the child over a long period of time) or may be horizontal or cross sectional (Collecting information of recent period from all possible sources about the child).

However, subjective bias is a constant threat to objective data gathering and analysis techniques. The investigator should be thoroughly familiar with the skills which are associated with the conduct of case-studies. To conduct a case study the following steps may be followed:

·       Determining the present status of the cases- this can be done by direct observation. You may take the help of any type of test; consult with the parents, peers to get information about the child.

·       Determine the most probable antecedents- this information helps in formulating workable hypotheses.

·       Verification of antecedents

·       Diagnosis of the causes and planning for remedial measures in the light of the causes.

·       Follow-up of the cases.

·       As an effective technique, case study gives information about the case in identifying the problems and plan for strategic development.

9. RUBRICS

Rubric use a set of criteria to evaluate a student's performance. They consist of a fixed measurement scale and detailed description of the characteristics for each level of performance. These descriptions focus on the quality of the product or performance and not the quantity; e.g., not number of paragraphs, examples to support an idea, spelling errors. Rubrics are commonly used to evaluate student performance with the intention of including the result in a grade for reporting purposes. Rubrics can increase the consistency and reliability of scoring.

Rubrics use a set of specific criteria to evaluate student performance. They may be used to assess individuals or groups and, as with rating scales, may be compared over time.

Developing Rubrics and Scoring Criteria

Rubrics are increasingly recognized as a way to both effectively assess student learning and communicate expectations directly, clearly and concisely to students. The inclusion of rubrics in a teaching resource provides opportunities to consider what demonstrations of learning look like, and to describe stages in the development and growth of knowledge, understandings and skills. To be most effective, rubrics should allow students to see the progression of mastery in the development of understandings and skills.

Rubrics should be constructed with input from students whenever possible. A good start is to define what quality work looks like based on the learning outcomes. Exemplars of achievement need to be used to demonstrate to students what an excellent or acceptable performance is. This provides a collection of quality work for students to use as reference points. Once the standard is established, it is easy to define what exemplary levels and less-than-satisfactory levels of performance look like. The best rubrics have three to five descriptive levels to allow for discrimination in the evaluation of the product or task. Rubrics may be used for summative purposes to gauge marks by assigning a score to each of the various levels.

When developing a rubric, consider the following:

·       What are the specific outcomes in the task?

·       Do the students have some experience with this or a similar task?

·       What does an excellent performance look like?

·       What are the qualities that distinguish an excellent response from other levels?

·       What do other responses along the performance quality continuum look like?

·       Is each description qualitatively different from the others?

·        Are there an equal number of descriptors at each level of quality?

·       Are the differences clear and understandable to students and others?

Begin by developing criteria to describe the Acceptable level. Then use Bloom's taxonomy to identify differentiating criteria as you move up the scale. The criteria should not go beyond the original performance task, but reflect higher order thinking skills that students could demonstrate within the parameters of the initial task.

When developing the scoring criteria and quality levels of a rubric, consider the following guidelines.

Level 4 is the Standard of excellence level. Descriptions should indicate that all aspects of work exceed grade level expectations and show exemplary performance or understanding. This is a "Wow!"

Level 3 is the Approaching standard of excellence level. Descriptions should indicate some aspects of work that exceed grade level expectations and demonstrate solid performance or understanding. This is a "Yes!"

Level 2 is the Meets acceptable standard. This level should indicate minimal competencies acceptable to meet grade level expectations. Performance and understanding are emerging or developing but there are some errors and mastery is not thorough. This is a "On the right track, but …".

Level 1 Does not yet meet acceptable standard. This level indicates what is not adequate for grade level expectations and indicates that the student has serious errors, omissions or misconceptions. This is a "No, but …". The teacher needs to make decisions about appropriate intervention to help the student improve.

Creating Rubrics with Students

Learning increases when students are actively involved in the assessment process. Students do better when they know the goal, see models and know how their performance compares to learning outcomes.

Learning outcomes are clarified when students assist in describing the criteria used to evaluate performance. Use brainstorming and discussion to help students analyze what each level looks like. Use student-friendly language and encourage students to identify descriptors that are meaningful to them. For example, a Grade 3 class might describe levels of quality with phrases such as the following.

·       Super!

·       Going beyond

·       Meets the mark

·       Needs more work.

Use work samples to help students practise and analyze specific criteria for developing a critical elements list. They can also use samples to practise assigning performance levels and compare criteria from level to level.

Although rubrics are often used as assessment of learning tools, they can also be used as assessment for learning tools. Students can benefit from using rubrics as they become more competent at judging the quality of their work and examining their own progress.

Example:

·       Involve students in the assessment process by having them participate in the creation of a rubric. This process facilitates a deeper understanding of the intended outcomes and the associated assessment criteria.

·       After a rubric has been created, students can use it to guide their learning. Criteria described in a rubric serve to focus student reflection on their work and facilitate the setting of learning goals for a particular performance assessment. Through self-assessment or peer-assessment, students can use a rubric to assess work completed to date and use it to guide their planning for the "next steps" in learning.

NOTE: In this hand out “.PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES” is not discussed as they are considered under psychological test where more expert hand, that is professional individuals required to handle the tools. 

Reference:

https://granite.pressbooks.pub/teachingdiverselearners/chapter/teacher-made-assessment-strategies-2/ Retrieved on 09/05/2021

http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/7660/1/Unit-23.pdf Retrieved on 09/05/2021

https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/statistics-2/evaluation-in-teaching-and-learning-process-education/92476 Retrieved on 09/05/2021