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LitCharts | September 27 2024
An ivory figurine of a ‘lion-man’from the Stadel Cave in Germany (c.32,000 years ago). This is one of the first indisputable examples of art, and probably of religion
Although Sapiens that looked identical to modern humans already populated Africa 150,000 years ago, scientists think that their brains had different internal structures, causing them to have far more limited cognitive abilities (e.g., learning, remembering, and communicating). However, around 70,000 years ago, Sapiens “started doing extraordinary things.” They invented “boats, oil lamps, [and] bows and arrows.” The earliest pieces of evidence of “art […] “religion, commerce, and social stratification” also date back to this time period. Scientists speculate that a random genetic mutation enabled Sapiens’ brains to function differently, causing a massive cognitive leap forward.
Harari thinks what makes Sapiens truly unique is our ability to communicate about “fictions”—things that can’t be observed in the physical world—like “Legends, myths, gods.” Harari thinks our ability to imagine things “collectively” gives us an evolutionary advantage because it enables us to cooperate with countless strangers on the basis of shared ideas and beliefs. Ants can also cooperate collectively in vast numbers, but only with their close relatives. Wolves can cooperate collectively with non-relatives, but only in small groups. Harari thinks Sapiens’ ability to cooperate and act collectively with countless other Sapiens is why we “rule the world.”
Some entities in the world don’t exist as physical objects, but exist in another sense. The car brand Peugeot, for example, enables 200,000 people to cooperate and produce millions of cars each year. If all those people leave the company and all those cars burn in a fire, Peugeot would still exist. Yet, if a judge dissolves the company, it ceases to exist. Lawyers call these legal entities “legal fictions.” Harari thinks people create corporations in the same way that “priests and sorcerers” created “Gods and demons”—by telling stories and convincing others to believe them. Such complex stories allow “imagined realities” like the company Peugeot to exist and collate immense power.
Harari believes that changing our “fictions” can change the way humans cooperate. For example, in 1789, the French population switched from believing kings had a divine right to rule to believing the people should rule themselves. Other animal species can’t change their typical social behavior without a genetic mutation. Chimpanzees can’t just decide to abolish the alpha male and establish a different social hierarchy without a mutation that enables such behavior. For Harari, it’s crucial to remember that because fictions, imagined realities, and the concepts humans create have such power over how societies function, changing a society often demands changing the fiction (or guiding concepts) that organize it in a particular way.
Archaic humans’ behavioral patterns remained fixed for thousands of years, but since the Cognitive Revolution, Homo sapiens can “transform social structures” in mere decades. Harari thinks this gave Sapiens the edge over Neanderthals, even though Neanderthals were physically stronger. Sapiens can coordinate large groups, rally other Sapiens around a cause (like taking Neanderthal territory), and adapt their behavior swiftly to accommodate unforeseen challenges.
Harari continues emphasizing the power in being able to make up and believe fictions. He thinks the capacity to invent new ideas to rally around gave Homo sapiens the unique ability to adapt quickly to new threats and territories. Harari argues that the wide range of imagined realities and associated behaviors that Homo sapiens engage in comprise what we call “culture.” We are still conditioned by our biology, which explains our social behavior (as it does for all animals) in small groups. However, according to Harari, the ability to invent fiction allows humans to function culturally in large groups, which is unique to Sapiens. This is why, Harari thinks, we need to look at our cultural (as well as biological history) to understand our nature.
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