Rust Nedir EXCLUSIVE

Hemileia vastatrix is a multicellular basidiomycete fungus of the order Pucciniales (previously also known as Uredinales) that causes coffee leaf rust (CLR), a disease affecting the coffee plant. Coffee serves as the obligate host of coffee rust, that is, the rust must have access to and come into physical contact with coffee (Coffea sp.) in order to survive.

There is currently no known alternate host nor reported cases of infection by basidiospores of H. vastatrix, yet the fungus is able to overcome resistance by plants and scientists do not know exactly how.[5] The predominant hypothesis is that H. vastatrix is heteroecious, completing its life cycle on an alternate host plant which has not yet been found.[5] An alternative hypothesis is that H. vastatrix actually represents an early-diverging autoecious rust, in which the teliospores are non-functional and vestigial, and the sexual life cycle is completed by the urediniospores. Hidden meiosis and sexual reproduction (cryptosexuality)[6] have been found within the generally asexual urediniospores.[7] This finding may explain why new physiological races have arisen so often and so quickly in H. vastatrix.

Rust Nedir

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There is a complex interaction between shade, meteorological effects such as rainfall or dry periods, and aerial dispersal of rust.[1] Researchers have found that shade may suppress spore dispersal under dry conditions but assist spore dispersal during wet conditions.[1] The researchers acknowledge the need for further research on the topic.

The rust needs suitable temperatures to develop (between 16 C and 28 C).[16] High altitude plantations are generally colder, so inoculum will not develop as easily as in plantations located in warmer regions. The presence of free water is required for infection to be completed. Loss of moisture after germination starts inhibits the whole infection process.

In 2012, there was a major increase in coffee rust across ten Latin American and Caribbean countries. The disease became an epidemic and the resulting crop losses led to a fall in supply, outstripping demand. Coffee prices rose as a result, although other factors such as growing demand for gourmet beans in China, Brazil, and India also contributed.[27][28]

The reasons for the epidemic remain unclear but an emergency rust summit meeting in Guatemala in April 2013 compiled a long list of shortcomings. These included a lack of resources to control the rust, the dismissal of early warning signs, ineffective fungicide application techniques, lack of training, poor infrastructure and conflicting advice. In a keynote talk at the "Let's Talk Roya" meeting (El Salvador, November 4, 2013), Dr Peter Baker, a senior scientist at CAB International, raised several key points regarding the epidemic including the proportional lack of investment in research and development in such a high value industry and the lack of investment in new varieties in key coffee producing countries such as Colombia.[18]

In late October 2020, USDA ARS detected rust on Maui. Immediately the Hawaii Department of Agriculture began inspections around the state, not just on Maui itself. They initially found plants they suspect to also be infected in Hilo on the big island, however these plants tested negative to CLR, though it was detected on plants in the Kailua-Kona region of the island.[36][37][38] In January, 2021, additional infections have been found on the islands of Oahu and Lanai, and plant quarantines have gone into effect as of March 2021 for interisland transport of coffee plants or parts between the four islands that CLR has been found on.[39]

Coffee leaf rust (CLR) has direct and indirect economic impacts on coffee production. Direct impacts include decreased quantity and quality of yield produced by the diseased plant and the cost of inputs meant specifically to control the disease.[40] Indirect impacts include increased costs to combat and control the disease. Methods of combating and controlling the disease include fungicide application and stumping diseased plants and replacing them with resistant breeds. Both methods include significant labor and material costs and in the case of stumping, include a years-long decline in production (coffee seedlings are not fully productive for three to five years after planting).

Rust-Oleum is a manufacturer of protective paints and coatings for home and industrial use. It was founded in 1921 by Robert Fergusson, a sea captain, after he noticed that fish oil spilled on rusty metal decks stopped corrosion from spreading. He soon incorporated whale oil into the formula, although many changes have been made over the years. Rust-Oleum products no longer contain whale oil, instead using resins derived from alkyds, polyurethanes, epoxies, latex, etc.

Rust-Oleum remained a family-owned company until 1994, when it was acquired by current owner RPM International Inc.[2] In 2015, the company reached one billion dollars in revenue.[3] Key brands include Stops Rust, High Performance, NeverWet, Painter's Touch, Universal, Varathane, Zinsser, and Watco. The company acquired Synta Inc., in 2012,[4] Krud Kutter, Inc. and Citadel Restoration and Repair, Inc. in 2014,[5][6] and Seal Krete in 2016.[7] On the basis of market share, Rust-Oleum holds the top position in the U.S. and Canada in the rust-preventative, decorative, specialty and professional segments of the small-project paint category.[8]

Stem rust, also known as cereal rust, black rust,[1][2] red rust or red dust,[3] is caused by the fungus Puccinia graminis, which causes significant disease in cereal crops. Crop species that are affected by the disease include bread wheat, durum wheat, barley and triticale.[1] These diseases have affected cereal farming throughout history. The annual recurrence of stem rust of wheat in North Indian plains was discovered by Prof. K.C. Mehta.[4] Since the 1950s, wheat strains bred to be resistant to stem rust have become available.[5] Fungicides effective against stem rust are available as well.[6]

In 1999 a new virulent race of stem rust was identified against which most current wheat strains show no resistance. The race was named TTKSK (e.g. isolate Ug99). An epidemic of stem rust on wheat caused by race TTKSK spread across Africa, Asia and the Middle East, causing major concern due to the large numbers of people dependent on wheat for sustenance, thus threatening global food security.[7]

An outbreak of another virulent race of stem rust, TTTTF, took place in Sicily in 2016, suggesting that the disease is returning to Europe.[5] Comprehensive genomic analysis of Puccinia graminis, combined with plant pathology and climate data, has pointed out the potential of the re-emergence of stem wheat rust in UK.[8][9]

The fungal ancestors of stem rust have infected grasses for millions of years and wheat crops for as long as they have been grown.[7] According to Jim Peterson, professor of wheat breeding and genetics at Oregon State University, "Stem rust destroyed more than 20% of U.S. wheat crops several times between 1917 and 1935, and losses reached 9% twice in the 1950s," with the last U.S. outbreak in 1962 destroying 5.2% of the crop.[7]

Anton de Bary later conducted experiments to observe the beliefs of European farmers regarding the relationship between the rust and barberry plants, and after connecting the basidiospores of the basidia stage to barberry, he also identified that the aeciospores in the aecia stage reinfect the wheat host. Upon de Bary's discovery of all five spore stages and their need for barberry as a host, John Craigie, a Canadian pathologist, identified the function of the spermogonium in 1927.[2]

P. graminis is a member of the phylum Basidiomycota within the kingdom Fungi. The characteristic rust color on stems and leaves is typical of a general stem rust as well as any variation of this type of fungus. Different from most fungi, the rust variations have five spore stages and alternate between two hosts. Wheat is the primary host, and barberry is the alternate host.[citation needed]

The rust is sometimes termed "red rust" or "red dust"[3][16] owing to the spores on the leaf surfaces that range from orange to dark-red in color. Later, the spores change and become dark in color, which gives rise to another common name, "black rust".[17][2]

Most common Pg race in 1991 in the United States, 68% of all Pg samples, and 67% in 1990. Afflicted spring-sown barley in the northern Great Plains in 1990. Was the first barley stem rust to show up in the United States in 1991, in southern Texas in Uvalde. Thought to be responsible for rusting of wild Hordea in the Midwestern United States and Great Plains, and overall was 94% of Pgs on Hordea in 1991. 67% of QCCJ was from barley and 95% of Pg on barley was QCCJ. On wheat, QCCJ was still the most common race but only at 38% of Pg. Continues to threaten barley in the Red River Valley in North Dakota and Minnesota. Higher than normal inoculum production in South Central Oklahoma and the adjacent part of North Texas before the 1991 season resulted in an epidemic in North Central and northwestern Kansas.[24] Virulent against barley bearing Rpg1. Down to 26% of Pgs afflicting wheat in the US in 1995, 1% in 1996, and not at all in 1997 or 1998. Not found on barley in 1997 but found again in 1998.[25]

The stem rust fungus attacks the parts of the plant that are above ground. Spores that land on green wheat plants form a pustule that invades the outer layers of the stalk.[7] Infected plants produce fewer tillers and set fewer seed, and in cases of severe infection the plant may die. Infection can reduce what is an apparently healthy crop about three weeks before harvest into a black tangle of broken stems and shriveled grains by harvest.[1]

Stem rust on wheat is characterized by the presence of uredinia on the plant, which are brick-red, elongated, blister-like pustules that are easily shaken off. They most frequently occur on the leaf sheaths, but are also found on stems, leaves, glumes and awns. On leaves they develop mostly on the underside but may penetrate to the upperside. On leaf sheaths and glumes pustules rupture the epidermis, giving a ragged appearance.[1] 17dc91bb1f