Deaf education in the United States was born from a young man, named Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, observing his younger brother playing with their deaf, eight-year old neighbor, Alice Cogswell. Gallaudet recognized that Alice was unable to understand spoken English, so he began writing words on the ground beneath them. After a few cycles of pointing to his written “HAT” and the hat on his head, Alice understood what Gallaudet was conveying. Excitedly, she began learning more words from Gallaudet. In 1816, there was no formal educational system for deaf students in the US. Deaf individuals were believed to be “deaf and dumb,” but Gallaudet made an effort to teach Alice written English. Her father, Mason Cogswell, was delighted to watch his daughter write her own name. So much so, he funded a trip for Gallaudet to travel to Europe and learn from their established Deaf educational systems (Krentz).

In Europe, Gallaudet traveled to many schools for the d/Deaf before he found success. A Deaf man, named Laurent Clerc, taught in French Sign Language (LSF). After studying LSF and the school’s teaching methods for a few months, he voyaged back to the US with Laurent Clerc by his side. While Gallaudet learned LSF, Clerc began learning written English in preparation for their next big step. The first residential school for the d/Deaf was established in Hartford, Connecticut in April 1817. Though only seven students at the time (including Alice Cogswell), this school proved to American society that d/Deaf individuals could be educated. d/Deaf students needed to be taught in a way that accommodated their needs (Krentz). Today, there are nearly one hundred schools in the United States dedicated to the education of d/Deaf students (American School for the Deaf).

The American d/Deaf education origin story not only plays a role in the development of ASL, but it began a major turning point in d/Deaf culture. Before living together at these residential schools, “[deaf] children did not even realize that there were others like themselves” (Krentz, xvii). Most students had no prior exposure to other deaf people and likely had only a few homesigns at best. Yet, there were also the students from Martha’s Vineyard, where 1-in-4 residents were hereditarily d/Deaf (Handspeak). As the students converged, their languages converged as well. The mixture of Martha’s Vineyard Sign Language (MSVL), homesigns, and Clerc’s LSF led to the formation of ASL. Along with a new, shared language,  the students began sharing “social rules, group norms, values,... storytelling,” or, “the components of a distinct culture” (Krentz, xvii). American d/Deaf culture finally had bearings in which they built local deaf churches and clubs to celebrate in. In a world of dominantly hearing people, d/Deaf Americans could celebrate their differences all together and begin forming strong Deaf identities.

In September 1880, the Second International Congress on the Education of the Deaf was held in Milan, Italy (“Milan Conference”). The Milan Conference, the more commonly used name, left a dark mark on the history of d/Deaf culture all around the globe. The eight, submitted resolutions were approved by the Congress despite, “no Deaf people [being] involved in preparing or approving the resolutions” (Moores). The first Resolution passed in a 160-4 vote (“Milan Conference”). It argued that speech was superior in, “restoring the deaf-mute to society,” and all d/Deaf students should be taught using the oral method (Moores). The second resolution similarly passed in a 150-16 vote (“Milan Conference”). Its main argument declared that simultaneous use of speech and sign language “[injured] speech, lip-reading, and precision of ideas,” and the oral method should be the sole educational method (Moores). The other six resolutions dealt with the exclusion of deaf citizens from participating in educational, government, and other various careers. Deaf people all around the world were left jobless and deemed uneducated unless they could produce and understand speech.

Thankfully, the US now has a much different image of d/Deaf culture due to the linguistic recognition efforts in the 1960s. William Stokoe’s work in defining ASL as language helped to defend against Oralism, but generations of d/Deaf individuals were negatively affected by the Milan Conference (Heritage Interpreting). The effects are still seen today and likely will for generations to come. The Milan Conference led to a resurgence in Audist beliefs around the world. ASL was outlawed. Even today, some parents view sign language as a hindrance to their child’s education. Overall, the Milan Conference helped the hearing majority push their feelings of language superiority onto d/Deaf adults and children. Thereby hindering their journeys to self-acceptance in their d/Deaf identities. It has taken over a century to rebuild what was lost to the Milan Conference, but by educating ourselves on d/Deaf culture, we chip away at the scars.

The Deaf President Now (DPN) Protest in the March of 1988 put Gallaudet University and the d/Deaf community at the forefront of national news. The Board of Trustees at Gallaudet University announced the appointment of Dr. Elisabeth Zinser, a hearing woman, as the 7th President of the University. Prior to the announcement, students held rallies to promote the appointment of one of the other two presidential candidates, both deaf men. One of those men would be the first Deaf president of Gallaudet University, an institution for deaf and hard of hearing individuals in Washington D.C.. Immediately following the announcement, students took action (Handspeak). 

Over the week-long protest, the students and faculty demanded four changes: (1) Dr. Zinser retires as president so a deaf individual may take place, (2) the Board chairperson, Dr. Jane Bassett Spilman, resigns, (3) the Board of Trustees reappoint to hold at minimum 51% deaf members, and (4) no punishment to the protestors of the DPN movement (Handspeak). Campus was shut down as students and faculty marched to the U.S. Capitol in demand of their needs. On their sixth day, they received permission from the MLK Museum to march with MLK’s “We Still Have A Dream” banner, for this was a civil rights movement. On March 13th, all their demands were met. Dr. Irving King Jordan, a latened-deaf man, was appointed the 8th President, and Philip Bravin, also a deaf man, became the first deaf Board chairperson. Yet, this protest had a much larger impact than the appointment of two men to high positions.

The DPN movement made an immense impact on d/Deaf culture as the nation of hearing people tuned into the televised protest. The students’ actions proved to the hearing world that deaf people were capable of anything a hearing person was. Alumni chimed in to provide support, as Dr. Harvey J. Corson (Class of ‘64) said, “I think it’s time for a new perspective, one that only a deaf person can offer” (Gallaudet University). With this win, a deep sense of pride blossomed in all d/Deaf individuals around the nation. The university held the first international Deaf Way festival to celebrate d/Deaf arts, literature, and culture (Gallaudet University). In fact, at the second Deaf Way Festival, the De’VIA Manifesto was created, further defining an aspect of culture.