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Objectives: The aim of this clinical study was to evaluate and compare the incidence and intensity of postoperative pain following removal of gutta-percha from root canals using rotary and reciprocating instruments.

Clinical relevance: One of the most significant contributions of this research is the importance given to the method used for pain evaluation. The present study analyzed postoperative pain resulting from the use of reciprocating or continuous rotary instruments during removal of gutta-percha in retreatment procedures.

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Stone tools serving to grind grain into flour played a key role in the analysis of this process. Research on querns and mills in eastern Iberia has focused for the most part on their typological variability and technological changes, as well as on their link to social organisation (for an overview see Alonso & Anderson 2019 and Alonso & Prez-Jord 2014). During the course of the 5th and 4th centuries BC, the saddle quern, a tool in use since the 6th millennium BC, was abandoned in favour of the rotary quern and soon after its larger counterpart,

the Iberian rotary pushing mill (Alonso & Anderson 2019). Although the studies cited above offer valuable information on their economic and social role, other topics of research have attracted less attention. These include notions as to their raw material and provenance, notably their petrology and mineralogy, microsedimentary and use-wear traces (Bofill et al. 2013) and the quarries where they were extracted (Anderson 2016).

The Iron Age site of La Cervera is located to the west of the present-day town of La Font de la Figuera (Valencia) on a gentle hill overlooking the Cnyoles River Valley (Fig. 1). The site was partially excavated in 2011 and 2012 in the framework of a rescue operation prior to the construction of the A-33 motorway. As it is estimated to stretch over a surface of about seven hectares, only 20% has been explored. The excavation of Area 1 took place in 2011 while that of Area 2, a small tip to the north of the hill, dates to 2012. The saddle querns and rotary mills presented in this paper come from these two areas which in terms of function, reveal no differences (Lpez Serrano et al. 2018) (Fig. 2).

Among the querns and mills yielding the most contextual information is n6 (SU 3164) recovered in the only domestic area identified at the settlement. Another is in a layer of abandonment layer of a storage area (n11, SU 3154). Certain are in SUs liked to workshop with undetermined combustion structures (n16, a rotary mill) and metallurgical structures (n17 and 22-24, saddle querns). SU 2003 in Area 2 is interpreted as a midden containing potsherds, faunal remains and fragments of burnt earth interpreted as the walls of hearths. SU 2046 belongs to a level of abandonment associated with a floor linked to iron and lead slag. Two combustion structures (SUs 2005 and 2045) interpreted as smithy hearths are recorded among these units. Finally, two undetermined saddle querns were recovered in the layer of abandonment of working area (n5 and 7, SUs 2003 and 2006).

A pebbled area identified in SU 3090 may have served as the base of a structure serving for various undetermined activities. Although there are two rotary mills in this unit, there is little contextual information providing insight into these activities. The fact that an area of burnt earth was identified next to the pebbles might point to a connection with smithy hearths and undetermined metallurgical activities.

Two final remarks about the contexts of the mills. Firstly, there is no clear pattern allowing to link each of the two types (saddle and rotary) with spatial functions. Secondly, there is no evidence of the coexistence of the two mill types. The data in fact points to a substitution of the saddle quern for the rotary mill in a timeframe corresponding to the turn of the 5th to the 4th century BC. Saddle querns belong to SUs dated to the 6th and 5th centuries BC although they also appear in the fills of the 4th century BC. Rotary mills, in turn, can be securely dated to the 4th century BC, unearthed in a dwelling and in layers of fill of workshops and terraced areas. The relatively high concentration of saddle querns in Area 2 (Fig. 2) can be explained by the fact that the occupation of the 4th century BC was not well preserved in this sector of the site.

The database comprises 25 mill fragments and two hand-held rubbers or upper stones (Fig. 3; Table 1). The lot can be further broken down into 10 saddle quern fragments, and nine rotary mill fragments and six undetermined. As none is complete and all were discarded and recovered in secondary position, it is not always possible to distinguish between the rotary mill types.

Rotary mills consist of two superimposed circular stones: a stationary or passive lower stone mounted by a mobile or active upper stone. This smaller rotary quern model, usually not surpassing 50 cm in diameter, was driven by hand, presumably in a sitting position, and generally associated with domestic tasks. The larger Iberian pushing mill, by contrast, was driven from a standing position (often on a podium) (Alonso-Frankel 2017). Yet for the La Cervera corpus of six upper and three lower highly fragmented stones with a diameter estimated at about 50 cm it is often not possible to determine whether they correspond to rotary or Iberian pushing mills (Table 1; Fig. 3)

Various types of sedimentary and igneous rocks were exploited for the manufacture of saddle querns and rotary mills. As there is no outcrop at the site itself, their identification is relevant to the understanding of the relationship of the site and control of the surrounding area and its resources.

The calcirudites serving to manufacture both the saddle and rotary mills (Fig. 6) bear unique features that allow a relatively clear identification of their source. Bioclastic calcirudites are calcareous sandstones characterised by a matrix of calcium carbonate and thick detritic elements (frequently > 2 mm in diameter), terrigenous inclusions (mainly quartz), and marine, fossil and intraclastic organic remains. They stem from coastal environments and are thus found in various phases of the Mesocenozoic associated with transgressive marine phases.

The rotary mill was adopted relatively quickly in the lower part of the Ebro River Valley and further south, along the Valencian inland and coastal areas at the sites of Los Villares/Kelin (Caudete de las Fuentes, Valencia) in the 5th and 4th centuries BC (Mata 2019: 88, 147) and in the 4th century BC at El Taratrato (Alcaiz, Teruel), El Tos Pelat (Moncada, Valencia) as well as further south in the Meseta at Alarcos (Ciudad Real) (Alonso & Prez-Jord 2014). However, this process was by no means uniform. As in the case of many other technologies throughout history, rotary mill adoption was politically driven.

Certain saddle and rotary mills from La Cervera were unearthed in metallurgical workshops and smithy contexts. The assumption is that they were served to grind the grain consumed by the workshop workers. A hypothetical use of the saddle querns at some stage in the processing of metal for crushing or as anvils cannot be confirmed without functional and use-wear analyses.

The social implications of the adoption of rotary mills are compelling. Given that they were technological innovations, and that technology is not politically neutral (Foxhall 2003, 75), it is necessary to contextualise this mill within other major social and economic changes in the 5th and 4th centuries BC, notably the processes of urbanisation, the intensification of relations in the western Mediterranean, and a new framework of social relations based on empowered households. In other words, it is imperative to delve into the interplay between the political economy, knowledge and technology.

There is a common consensus that rotary querns replaced saddle querns due to their greater efficiency (Alonso & Prez-Jord 2014). There is no evidence suggesting that the change of mill type correlates with the grain types as the cereals grown remained largely unchanged. Hulled barley and naked wheat continued being the staple in the framework of the earliest rotary querns as it had throughout the previous millennia (Prez-Jord 2013). This bolsters the notion that the innovation resulted in a more efficient and greater yield of flour while decreasing the amount of labour and investment of time per person.

Pursuing this line of thought leads to delving into the significant changes linked to the material used to produce the querns and mills. While production of saddle querns of the 6th and 5th centuries BC resorted to a variety of rocks, notably calcirudite, sandstone and igneous rocks, the rotary mills of the 4th century BC were all hewn from calcirudites probably procured locally at Montesa. At this point, sandstone and igneous rocks were completely abandoned. This pattern of specialisation in the exploitation of an outcrop for rotary querns and mills is confirmed by other nearby sites such as La Bastida de les Alcusses where all rotary querns are calcirudites (Fig. 9). Thus, from the 4th century BC onwards the manufacture of querns as a centralised activity appears to have gone hand in hand with the adoption of the new type. At Els Vilars, a similar change in the type of stone is recorded. Saddle querns were fashioned from a variety of materials, often of igneous origin, whereas most rotary querns and mills from the 4th century BC were hewn from nearby porous limestone outcrops (Alonso et al. 2011, 57, fig. 6). 006ab0faaa