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Measurements: Self-rated fatigue and sleepiness, simple reaction time before and after each session, number of inappropriate line crossings from the driving simulator and from video-recordings of real driving.

Results: Line crossings were more frequent in the driving simulator than in real driving (P < .001) and were increased by sleep deprivation in both conditions. Reaction times (10% slowest) were slower during simulated driving (P = .004) and sleep deprivation (P = .004). Subjects had higher sleepiness scores in the driving simulator (P = .016) and in the sleep restricted condition (P = .001). Fatigue increased over time (P = .011) and with sleep deprivation (P = .000) but was similar in both driving conditions.

Real Car Driving

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Conclusions: Fatigue can be equally studied in real and simulated environments but reaction time and self-evaluation of sleepiness are more affected in a simulated environment. Real driving and driving simulators are comparable for measuring line crossings but the effects are of higher amplitude in the simulated condition. Driving simulator may need to be calibrated against real driving in various condition.

Starting in 2017, the Real-Driving Emissions (RDE) test became part of the type-approval procedure for all new passenger cars and vans. The RDE test is an on-road emissions test meant to complement laboratory tests to ensure vehicle emissions are similar during normal, real-world operating conditions as they are during laboratory testing. The RDE regulation was adopted in four packages between 2015 and 2018.

bExtended driving conditions are still allowed to count towards a valid trip, but the pollutant emissions (excluding CO2) measured must be divided by 1.6 before evaluating compliance with emissions limits

Where CF is a conformity factor and EURO-6 is the Euro 6 emission limit in mg/km. The conformity factor allows for vehicles to emit by a certain factor above the Euro 6 emission limit when driving on the road. Conformity factors are shown in the table below:

The Working Party on Pollution and Energy (GRPE) is one of the six subsidiary bodies of the World Forum. It concentrates its work on defining exhaust, energy efficiency and power measurement procedures for all modes of inland transport in order to limit environmental damage. GRPE will be in charge of the development of the UN GTR on real driving emissions testing.

In addition to specifying the trip characterization, other defined boundary conditions include ambient conditions, stop times, maximum speed, and altitude. A set of additional dynamic boundary conditions has been added for the second RDE legislative package to exclude driving that could be regarded as too smooth or too aggressive, based on indicators such as speed and acceleration. The table shows the dynamic boundary conditions for the RDE tests.

It compares for 15 driving conditions within an operational control range the measured sound level against a predicted expected sound level. Real-Driving ASEP compliant are those vehicles that have not more than 2 runs which exceed the expected sound level by no more than 2dB. So at least 13 runs need to be within the expected sound level for that condition.

In general, the Technical Service will start looking for driving conditions that maximize the Performance criterion v.a : lower entry speeds in lower gears will lead to higher accelerations. But higher speeds will not reach high accelerations. Starting for different gears at low speeds in 100% accelerations is a good starting point. Then increase the speeds to see where the Performance maximizes and repeat over different gears.

Real-Driving ASEP is a complex extension to the UN/ECE Regulation 51.03 standard. It aims at adding real driving conditions into the homologation procedure. Although Diesel-gate is behind us, there is still the fear that with too little regulation the automotive industry might find loopholes in the legislation.

RDE does not replace the WLTP laboratory test, but complements it. RDE serves to confirm WLTP results in real life, thereby ensuring that cars deliver low pollutant emissions, not only in the laboratory but also on the road. Europe is the first region in the world to introduce such on-the-road testing, marking a major leap in the testing of car emissions.

In the context of Euro 6 approvals and future developments, a series of requirements must be satisfied, including measurements of pollutant emissions (gaseous pollutants and particles) based on laboratory measurements of exhaust emissions (using the WLTC cycle) supplemented by measurements of emissions under real driving conditions (RDE) carried out by a (PEMS).

Measurements in real-life driving conditions allow the correlation of pollutant emissions between the measurements made in the laboratory for the homologation cycle and the vehicle driven on the road every day.

The RDE tests are performed on open roads. These tests follow the different stages of the WLTC cycle. They must therefore begin with an urban section, followed by an out-of-town section and a freeway section. The tests in real driving conditions are carried out on roads with an altitude of less than 700 meters and temperatures between 0C and 30C.

The manufacturer must guarantee the conformity of the vehicle with the homologation data for a minimum of 5 years or 100,000 km, whichever comes first. In-service conformity refers to laboratory and real driving gas emission tests and evaporation tests.

The vehicle velocity shall normally not exceed 145 km/h. This maximum speed may be exceeded by a tolerance of 15 km/h for not more than 3 % of the time duration of the motorway driving. Local speed limits remain in force at a PEMS test, notwithstanding other legal consequences.

The air conditioning system or other auxiliary devices can be operated in a way which corresponds to their possible use by a consumer at real driving on the road. Any misuse of the air-conditioning system should be avoided, such as for instance using it with open windows, if not needed for the measuring equipment. The recommended temperature for the comfort of the passenger(s) is in the range of 20 to 24C.

All original auxiliary devices available to the user are allowed (i.e. only original devices from the Manufacturer). Any use shall be documented. Electrical auxiliaries that are automatically shut-down when their goal is achieved (i.e. rear window heating, mirror heating, etc.) should only be re-started again if actually needed for a safe driving.

For new models seeking approval, the EU brought in a real driving emissions test on 20 April 2016. However, between April 2016 and September 2017 there was no limit imposed on the amount of pollutants cars could emit in these tests. Approval was based solely on their performance in the old and discredited lab test.

That will change on 1 September next year, when the Euro 6d-TEMP limit is extended to all new registrations. After that, carmakers will have to stop selling any new vehicles that have not passed a Step 1 real driving emissions test.

Current certification procedures42 require the use of the WLTC driving cycle, longer (23.25 km) and much more dynamic than its predecessor, the NEDC cycle (with only 11 km). Besides, from September 2017, with the adoption of Euro 6d Standard, the WLTC cycle must be complemented in some cases with emission measurements in a RDE test, a trip carried out on public roads, open to normal traffic, trying to reduce the gap between the certified emissions and those measured under real driving conditions. RDE will apply to all new cars by 2021. A valid RDE trip must include urban, rural and motorway driving phases, defined exclusively on velocity intervals, and each of these phases must fulfill the specifications listed in Table 4. As shown in this table, the dynamic characteristics of the trip are controlled based on two parameters, the relative positive acceleration, RPA (i.e. the integral of the velocity multiplied by the time interval and the acceleration, if the last is positive, divided by the distance), for which a minimum is required to impede too soft trips and excessive steady-velocity periods, and the 95th percentile of the velocity-acceleration product, va (95) (a maximum limit is set as a function of the average velocity along the cycle, \(\overline{v}\), to avoid too aggressive driving).

The time-velocity-gear trace of the RDE simulated in the engine test bench with the Road Load Simulation system described in "Experimental installation" section was first acquired by driving the vehicle in Ciudad Real (Spain) and surroundings. The urban period was mostly covered in the city beltway and the university area, the rural period on the N-420 road from Ciudad Real to Daimiel (where velocities higher than 90 km/h are not allowed) and the motorway on the A-43 (from Daimiel back to Ciudad Real). The main metrics of the trip are shown in Table 4 to compare with the required specifications, and the velocity trace is shown in Fig. 2 along with the trace corresponding to WLTC cycle.

To analyze the results obtained in the RDE cycle, authors have divided the RDE cycle into 4 phases. The urban driving required in the specifications comprises the first and the last phases (named Urban 1, from the cold start to 3335 s, and Urban 2, from 5585 s to the end, i.e., 5915 s), while rural and motorway driving periods correspond to the second phase (Rural, from 3336 to 4660 s) and the third phase (Motorway, from 4661 to 5584 s). The last urban phase, although not required, was included to simulate a realistic go-and-return trip. The total distance amounted 74.3 km.

Fuel consumption (both instantaneous and accumulated), equivalence ratio, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), were firstly analyzed for both driving cycles (WLTC and RDE), and then emissions were compared when the vehicle was fueled with diesel fuel and with GEE-30. Some of these parameters, such as equivalence ratio and EGR, are previously discussed because of their strong effect on the engine emissions, which must be considered to explain the effect of the fuel used. ff782bc1db