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Even when rated as "passable," four-wheel-drive roads are challenging. High-clearance, four-wheel-drive vehicles with a low range gear (4LO) are required on the White Rim Road. Other vehicles (e.g., all-wheel-drive vehicles, and low-clearance or high-clearance two-wheel-drive vehicles) have difficulty negotiating the rough slickrock, loose rocks, deep sand, and steep switchbacks and are not permitted upon the White Rim Road. Vehicles higher than 9' 6" not recommended in order to clear overhangs. Permits are required on the White Rim Road.

Maze roads are challenging and visitors must be prepared with the proper equipment to facilitate self-rescue. Visitors should carry extra supplies in case it takes a day or two for the road to dry out. Cell phone communication is not reliable. Park rangers do not winch vehicles out. Commercial towing fees below the Flint Trail start at over $2,000. Roads rated 4WD must have 4WD with a low range gear (4LO) and high clearance. Other vehicles (e.g., all-wheel-drive vehicles, and low-clearance or high-clearance two-wheel-drive vehicles) cannot navigate the rough slickrock, steep ledges, loose rocks, deep sand, and steep switchbacks.

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The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite was launched on 27 November 1997, and data from all the instruments first became available approximately 30 days after the launch. Since then, much progress has been made in the calibration of the sensors, the improvement of the rainfall algorithms, and applications of these results to areas such as data assimilation and model initialization. The TRMM Microwave Imager (TMI) calibration has been corrected and verified to account for a small source of radiation leaking into the TMI receiver. The precipitation radar calibration has been adjusted upward slightly (by 0.6 dBZ) to match better the ground reference targets; the visible and infrared sensor calibration remains largely unchanged. Two versions of the TRMM rainfall algorithms are discussed. The at-launch (version 4) algorithms showed differences of 40% when averaged over the global Tropics over 30-day periods. The improvements to the rainfall algorithms that were undertaken after launch are presented, and intercomparisons of these products (version 5) show agreement improving to 24% for global tropical monthly averages. The ground-based radar rainfall product generation is discussed. Quality-control issues have delayed the routine production of these products until the summer of 2000, but comparisons of TRMM products with early versions of the ground validation products as well as with rain gauge network data suggest that uncertainties among the TRMM algorithms are of approximately the same magnitude as differences between TRMM products and ground-based rainfall estimates. The TRMM field experiment program is discussed to describe active areas of measurements and plans to use these data for further algorithm improvements. In addition to the many papers in this special issue, results coming from the analysis of TRMM products to study the diurnal cycle, the climatological description of the vertical profile of precipitation, storm types, and the distribution of shallow convection, as well as advances in data assimilation of moisture and model forecast improvements using TRMM data, are discussed in a companion TRMM special issue in the Journal of Climate (1 December 2000, Vol. 13, No. 23).

The radar data from the four Global Atmospheric Research Program Atlantic Tropical Experiment ships stationed in the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) off Africa in 1974 were used for a series of sampling studies. Several orbits and altitudes were considered. An inclined orbit extending between 35N and 35S at 350-km altitude was found to be most suitable. The inclined orbit precessed such that the satellite would overfly a given location at a different time every day with an approximate 42-day cycle. This orbit would allow the documentation of the large diurnal variation of tropical rainfall. The altitude of 350 km was satisfactory from the radar antenna requirements. Shin and North (1988) by the summer of 1986 had showed that in the wet tropical areas the sampling errors for monthly accumulations in 5 5 grids would be less than 10%. Shin and North also showed that, with rain data from another satellite such as the Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) passive microwave radiometers aboard military satellites, the sampling errors could be cut in half and useful data also could be obtained in drier environments.

Insuring the credibility of space-based measurements of rainfall was also a concern from the onset because of the considerable difficulty of making accurate rain measurements via conventional means. Thus, the need for reliable surface-based observations for validating TRMM satellite measurements was established. The ground validation program that followed included conduction of studies to improve rainfall measurement technology; establishment of ground validation sites consisting of radars, rain gauges, and disdrometers around the Tropics; development and expansion of techniques to measure rainfall in oceanic regions; improvement of ground-based rainfall estimation techniques; and development of radar processing and analysis software for producing and analyzing ground validation (GV) products. To complement the surface-based measurements, the planning for extensive field campaigns was initiated early to provide the necessary microphysical and dynamical structure of convective systems in the Tropics after launch.

Calibrated and earth-located data from the TRMM instruments are referred to as level-1 data. Coding of the level-1 algorithms was performed by the TRMM Science and Data Information System (TSDIS) for the TMI and VIRS and by the National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) for the PR. The only additional product at level 1 is the PR reflectivity. In this algorithm, the radar returned power is converted into reflectivity, the parameter most often used in science applications. In addition to the conversion, a decision is made about the existence of rain in the radar field of view. If no rain is detected, the entire reflectivity column is set to a missing value. This step was done to help to reduce data volumes in compressed file formats. All TRMM products have version numbers that are incremented each time the data are reprocessed to reflect an advancement of the TRMM products. After beginning with version 3 at launch (versions 1 and 2 were prelaunch test codes), the data have been reprocessed to version 4 beginning on 1 September 1998 and to version 5 beginning on 1 October 1999. Two additional reprocessings are planned before the end of the mission.

Such agreement in the observed radar reflectivity has, in turn, forced a much more comprehensive validation strategy to assess the validity of rainfall products. It has also led to unforeseen benefits such as the possibility of using a spaceborne radar as a calibration constant to monitor the multitude of ground-based radars that are calibrated independently and rarely to the 1-dBZ standards of the TRMM PR. An example of PR data collected over Hurricane Floyd is shown in Fig. 2.

Rainfall products, their error budgets, and the vertical structure of latent heating form the cornerstone of TRMM science. In designing the data systems to generate these products under the very tight budget constraints, it was necessary to minimize the set of products that would satisfy the mission requirements. This section presents an overview of the algorithms deemed to be critical to the mission success. A summary of these products is presented in Table 4 for reference. The levels (2 or 3) follow the standard NASA nomenclature. Level 2 consists of the retrieved geophysical parameters at the satellite footprint level; level-3 products represent either space- or time-averaged geophysical parameters. Like the level-1 products, rainfall products follow the version numbers with version 3 released at launch, version 4 introduced on 1 September 1998, and version 5 introduced on 1 October 1999. Roughly 5 days of data can be reprocessed in 24 h. Reprocessed products are therefore not available immediately, but with some delay depending upon the date the data were collected. 17dc91bb1f