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Domestic spousal violence against women in developing countries like India, is now beginning to be recognized as a widespread health problem impeding development. This study aimed to explore the risk and protective factors for lifetime spousal physical violence. A cross-sectional household survey was carried out in rural, urban and urban-slum areas across seven sites in India, among women aged 15-49 years, living with a child less than 18 years of age. The sample was selected using the probability proportionate to size method. Trained field workers administered a structured questionnaire to elicit information on spousal physical violence. The main hypothesized variables were social support, witnessed father beating mother and experience of harsh physical violence during childhood, alcohol abuse by spouse and socioeconomic variables. The outcome variables included three physical violence behaviours of hit, kick and beat. Odds ratios were calculated for risk and protective factors of violence using logistic regression. Of 9938 women surveyed, 26% reported experiencing spousal physical violence during the lifetime of their marriage. Adjusted odds ratios calculated using multiple logistic regression analysis suggest that women whose husbands regularly consumed alcohol (OR 5.6; 95% CI 4.7-6.6); who experienced dowry harassment (OR 3.2; 95% CI 2.7-3.8); had reported experiencing harsh physical punishment during childhood (OR 1.6; 95% CI 1.4-1.8) and had witnessed their fathers beat their mothers (OR 1.9; 95% CI 1.6-2.1), were at increased risk of spousal physical violence (beat, hit and kick). Higher socioeconomic status and good social support acted as protective buffers against spousal physical violence. The findings provide compelling evidence of the potential risk factors for spousal physical violence, which in turn could help in planning interventions.

Background: The rising prevalence of diabetes and obesity in India can be attributed, at least in part, to increasing levels of physical inactivity. However, there has been no nationwide survey in India on physical activity levels involving both the urban and rural areas in whole states of India. The aim of the present study was to assess physical activity patterns across India - as part of the Indian Council of Medical Research-India Diabetes (ICMR-INDIAB) study.

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Conclusions: The study shows that a large percentage of people in India are inactive with fewer than 10% engaging in recreational physical activity. Therefore, urgent steps need to be initiated to promote physical activity to stem the twin epidemics of diabetes and obesity in India.

Based on analysis of S&P Global environmental, social and governance data, nearly 40% of India-headquartered companies conduct physical risk assessments, and one-third of large Indian companies rate climate strategy as one of their top three material issues.

About one-quarter of major Indian companies have a plan to adapt to the physical impacts of climate change, higher than the global average, according to S&P Global Sustainable1 analysis of 187 companies headquartered in the country and representing 85% of local market capitalization.

Assessing physical risks and implementing adaptation plans can help companies prepare for the effects of extreme weather events on their business and the broader economy. However, companies globally need to engage in climate adaptation planning to build resilience to these hazards, research from S&P Global Sustainable1 shows. This trend holds true for Indian companies as well.

Utilities and real estate lead physical risk adaptation planning among the 187 Indian companies covered in the assessment, with 50% of businesses in both sectors having plans. Utilities are heavily reliant on physical infrastructure, which will be increasingly at risk of damage and disruption from storms, flooding and other climate hazards. The built environment accounts for 40% of global emissions. The Indian real estate industry has been taking steps to undertake sustainable projects that are more resilient to climate hazards. Unplanned urbanization and unregulated construction make India more vulnerable to physical hazards such as flooding, according to the World Bank.

Nearly 40% of India-headquartered companies conduct physical risk assessments, based on analysis of S&P Global environmental, social and governance data. Physical risk assessments form the basis for adaptation plans as they can show how vulnerable an organization might be to hazards such as heat waves or floods. Sectors that carry out physical risk assessments are more likely to implement physical risk adaptation plans. For example, all of the real estate companies in our analysis conduct physical risk assessments, along with about two-thirds of utility companies. These are also the sectors with the highest rates of physical risk adaptation planning.

Among consumer services companies, 28.6% in our analysis carry out physical risk assessments, but at present none have adopted adaptation plans. In consumer discretionary, 13% of companies conduct physical risk assessments and 8.7% have a plan.

While adaptation planning and physical risk assessments are not yet widespread globally, about 33% of large Indian companies in the CSA rate climate strategy as one of their top three material issues. That surpasses the share among the 6,266 companies assessed worldwide and likely reflects the fact that India is already feeling the acute impact of physical risk hazards

The physical hazards of climate change, such as extreme heat, can lead to power outages, increased air pollution and public health issues. This in turn results in severe health risks to the population, lower labor productivity and reduced economic growth. The country has suffered more than 24,000 heat-wave-related deaths since 1992, according to University of Cambridge researchers. The country is likely to have a greater share of its economy exposed to physical risks than peers by 2050 because of high exposure to wildfires, floods, storms and rising sea levels, S&P Global Ratings said in an April 2022 analysis.

India also faces vulnerability from other physical risk hazards such as flooding. Power plants that rely on water could be impacted, along with offices, datacenters, warehouses, agricultural equipment and transportation. S&P Global Sustainable1 data shows that the frequency of severe flooding will increase in many parts of India by the 2090s. A severe flood is typified as a 1-in-100-year event, meaning an event where flood depths reach a level that has only occurred on average once every 100 years in the past. When looking at India, the risk of a flooding event of this severity for some fluvial areas will double, making them 1-in-50-year events by the 2090s.

Domestic abuse is common in India, but varies widely by region. In a study conducted in five districts of Uttar Pradesh, 18-45% of husbands reported physically abusing their wives.1 Of those who acknowledged being physically abusive, more than four in 10 reported an episode of violence during the prior year and more than six in 10 admitted repeated abuse. Men who had little education, those who had more than one child and those who were extremely poor were more likely than other men to have physically abused their wives. In separate analyses of these data examining relationships between wife abuse and male reproductive health, the prevalence of abuse was significantly higher among men who had had extramarital or premarital sex, those who had ever had a sexually transmitted disease (STD) and those whose wives had had an unplanned pregnancy than it was among other men.2

Data on spousal abuse were collected in 1995-1996 as part of a survey on male reproductive health that included 6,695 married men aged 15-65 in five districts of Uttar Pradesh, one of the least developed states in India. Men who reported abusing their wives were asked about the type, frequency and extent of the abuse. Those who reported that they had sexually abused their wives were asked whether they had had nonconsensual sex and whether they had physically forced their wives to have sex. They were also asked whether they had ever abused their wives while the women were pregnant, what kinds of behaviors their wives exhibited while being abused, and whether their wives had ever sought medical treatment for injuries resulting from abuse.

Overall, 1,990 men (30%) reported physically abusing their wives. The level and type of wife abuse fluctuated across the five districts (Aligarh, Bandha, Gonda, Kanpur Nagar and Nainital). The proportion of men reporting physical abuse ranged from 18% in Nainital to 45% in Bandha. Sexual abuse followed a similar pattern: Men in Nainital were least likely to say they had had nonconsensual sex with their wives (18%), while those in Bandha were most likely to do so (40%). Men were much less likely to say they had physically forced their wives to have sex (4-9% across the districts). In all five districts, men who reported physically abusing their wives were significantly more likely to report nonconsensual sex (odd ratios of 2.1-3.0) and forced sex (2.3-5.8).

Most of the men who said that they had physically abused their wives reported multiple episodes (63-91% across districts), and large proportions said that they had physically abused their wives within the past year (47-74%). Smaller percentages (5-13%) reported abusive behavior while their wives were pregnant. Men were more likely to report shouting or yelling at their wives (33-94%) and slapping or pushing their wives (47-77%) than punching or kicking them (8-32%) or using a weapon or object against their wives (5-10%).

The men were most likely to say that their wives had responded to the last episode of abuse by crying (49-90% across districts) or by shouting and yelling back (7-42%). Smaller proportions of men said that their wives had run away from home (4-10%) or had physically retaliated (0-6%). No more than 3% reported that their wives had sought medical treatment after being abused. e24fc04721