You can reduce the inheritance tax burden on your beneficiaries by placing your assets in a trust, or by gifting assets to your beneficiaries while they are still living. Another option is to take out a life insurance policy, naming your heirs as beneficiaries. These payouts are not subject to inheritance taxes.
In the preceding lessons, you have seen inheritance mentioned several times. In the Java language, classes can be derived from other classes, thereby inheriting fields and methods from those classes.
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The idea of inheritance is simple but powerful: When you want to create a new class and there is already a class that includes some of the code that you want, you can derive your new class from the existing class. In doing this, you can reuse the fields and methods of the existing class without having to write (and debug!) them yourself.
Inheritance, together with encapsulation and polymorphism, is one of the three primary characteristics of object-oriented programming. Inheritance enables you to create new classes that reuse, extend, and modify the behavior defined in other classes. The class whose members are inherited is called the base class, and the class that inherits those members is called the derived class. A derived class can have only one direct base class. However, inheritance is transitive. If ClassC is derived from ClassB, and ClassB is derived from ClassA, ClassC inherits the members declared in ClassB and ClassA.
In programming, inheritance refers to passing down characteristics from a parent to a child so that a new piece of code can reuse and build upon the features of an existing one. JavaScript implements inheritance by using objects. Each object has an internal link to another object called its prototype. That prototype object has a prototype of its own, and so on until an object is reached with null as its prototype. By definition, null has no prototype and acts as the final link in this prototype chain. It is possible to mutate any member of the prototype chain or even swap out the prototype at runtime, so concepts like static dispatching do not exist in JavaScript.
Although classes are now widely adopted and have become a new paradigm in JavaScript, classes do not bring a new inheritance pattern. While classes abstract most of the prototypal mechanism away, understanding how prototypes work under the hood is still useful.
You may also see some legacy code using Object.create() to build the inheritance chain. However, because this reassigns the prototype property and removes the constructor property, it can be more error-prone, while performance gains may not be apparent if the constructors haven't created any instances yet.
It is essential to understand the prototypal inheritance model before writing complex code that makes use of it. Also, be aware of the length of the prototype chains in your code and break them up if necessary to avoid possible performance problems. Further, the native prototypes should never be extended unless it is for the sake of compatibility with newer JavaScript features.
PostgreSQL implements table inheritance, which can be a useful tool for database designers. (SQL:1999 and later define a type inheritance feature, which differs in many respects from the features described here.)
Let's start with an example: suppose we are trying to build a data model for cities. Each state has many cities, but only one capital. We want to be able to quickly retrieve the capital city for any particular state. This can be done by creating two tables, one for state capitals and one for cities that are not capitals. However, what happens when we want to ask for data about a city, regardless of whether it is a capital or not? The inheritance feature can help to resolve this problem. We define the capitals table so that it inherits from cities:
Table inheritance is typically established when the child table is created, using the INHERITS clause of the CREATE TABLE statement. Alternatively, a table which is already defined in a compatible way can have a new parent relationship added, using the INHERIT variant of ALTER TABLE. To do this the new child table must already include columns with the same names and types as the columns of the parent. It must also include check constraints with the same names and check expressions as those of the parent. Similarly an inheritance link can be removed from a child using the NO INHERIT variant of ALTER TABLE. Dynamically adding and removing inheritance links like this can be useful when the inheritance relationship is being used for table partitioning (see Section 5.11).
ALTER TABLE will propagate any changes in column data definitions and check constraints down the inheritance hierarchy. Again, dropping columns that are depended on by other tables is only possible when using the CASCADE option. ALTER TABLE follows the same rules for duplicate column merging and rejection that apply during CREATE TABLE.
Foreign tables (see Section 5.12) can also be part of inheritance hierarchies, either as parent or child tables, just as regular tables can be. If a foreign table is part of an inheritance hierarchy then any operations not supported by the foreign table are not supported on the whole hierarchy either.
Note that not all SQL commands are able to work on inheritance hierarchies. Commands that are used for data querying, data modification, or schema modification (e.g., SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, most variants of ALTER TABLE, but not INSERT or ALTER TABLE ... RENAME) typically default to including child tables and support the ONLY notation to exclude them. Commands that do database maintenance and tuning (e.g., REINDEX, VACUUM) typically only work on individual, physical tables and do not support recursing over inheritance hierarchies. The respective behavior of each individual command is documented in its reference page (SQL Commands).
A serious limitation of the inheritance feature is that indexes (including unique constraints) and foreign key constraints only apply to single tables, not to their inheritance children. This is true on both the referencing and referenced sides of a foreign key constraint. Thus, in the terms of the above example:
Some functionality not implemented for inheritance hierarchies is implemented for declarative partitioning. Considerable care is needed in deciding whether partitioning with legacy inheritance is useful for your application.
In fact, it is slightly more complex than that; the method resolution orderchanges dynamically to support cooperative calls to super(). Thisapproach is known in some other multiple-inheritance languages ascall-next-method and is more powerful than the super call found insingle-inheritance languages.
Dynamic ordering is necessary because all cases of multiple inheritance exhibitone or more diamond relationships (where at least one of the parent classescan be accessed through multiple paths from the bottommost class). For example,all classes inherit from object, so any case of multiple inheritanceprovides more than one path to reach object. To keep the base classesfrom being accessed more than once, the dynamic algorithm linearizes the searchorder in a way that preserves the left-to-right ordering specified in eachclass, that calls each parent only once, and that is monotonic (meaning that aclass can be subclassed without affecting the precedence order of its parents).Taken together, these properties make it possible to design reliable andextensible classes with multiple inheritance. For more detail, see
I keep hearing the phrase "Favour Composition over Inheritance" from GoF, which is being annoyingly mentioned repeatedly by my friend, who thinks it is a valid blanket statement. But is it not more sensible to consider that the real reason why inheritance exists is not just for behaviour reuse, but for the case where a hierarchy of classes inheriting from the same ancestor need to be passed as arguments to a function? That is: to implicitly implement polymorphism, and these descendent classes have methods which are polymorphisms of a funtion in the ancestral class. Use of inheritance in this manner is the sole reason why herds and fleets of programmers find it pleasurable to write UI with Microsoft's WPF with (Visual) C#. How would composition fit nicely into the picture of UI framework design, without being too verbose? be457b7860
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