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Chronology of Scientific concepts after the Renaissance
Chronology of Scientific concepts after the Renaissance
Energy in continuum
Thermodynamics started in the 1600s with the invention of the thermometer by Santorio, and the barometer by Torricielli. Its laws, together with the law of motion by Newton constituted the main physical science for two centuries. This science dealt with heat and work as main forms of Energy in continuum. Their behavior and dynamics, governed by the laws of thermodynamics, allowed the description of measurable macroscopic physical quantities like temperature, the prediction of feasibility of chemical reactions, and the enhancement of engine efficiency. This development allowed the industrial revolution in the 1760s, marked by steam engines and railway networks.
Chronology of Thermodynamics concepts
1620 Bacon heat is motion.
1625 Santorio water thermometer.
1638 Galilei laws of falling bodies.
1643 Torricelli mercury barometer.
1650 Pascal atmospheric pressure.
1662 Boyle PV is constant at constant T.
1673 Huygens study of oscillating systems.
1679 Papin the autoclave.
1686 Descartes work is a quantity of motion.
1686 Halley heat conduction.
1687 Newton physical laws of motion.
1738 Bernouilli hydrodynamics, kinetic theory of gas.
1742 Celsius centigrade temperature scale.
1750 Black heat capacity.
1768 Watt efficient atmospheric steam engine.
1777 Scheele thermal radiation.
1787 Charles V/T is contant at constant P.
1789 Lavoisier conservation of mass.
1807 Fourier heat equation.
1811 Avogadro V/n is constant at constant T and P.
1824 Carnot idealized heat engine cycle.
1830 Forbes undulatory theory of heat.
1834 Clapeyron law of ideal gas, PV equals nRT.
1840 Hess law of conversation of Energy.
1841 Mayer motion is converted into heat.
1843 Joule conservation of Energy, first law.
1848 Kelvin absolute zero, T(K) > 0.
1849 Rankin the mechanical action of heat.
1854 Thomson coined the terms ‘thermodynamics’.
1855 Fick laws of diffusion.
1864 Tait dynamical theory of heat.
1865 Clausius definition of entropy, second law.
1873: Van der Waals equation of state for real gas.
1876 Gibbs phase rule.
1877 Boltzmann statistical base of entropy. kB = R/NAv.
1882 Helmholtz the thermodynamics of chemical processes.
1884 Van't Hoff osmotic pressure.
1884 Le Chatelier chemical equilibrium.
1899 Arrhenius kinetics equation.
1906 Nernst third law of thermodynamics.
Meanwhile, interested by the Universe and Astronomy
1532 Copernicus planets orbit the sun.
1609 Kepler laws of planetary motion.
1610 Galelei heliocentric theory.
1915 Einstein theory of general relativity.
1927 Lemaître theory of Big Bang.
1929 Hubble law of expanding universe.
1932 Jansky detection of universe radio waves.
Meanwhile, interested by the Biology and Medicine
1665 Hooke discovery of cells.
1857 Pasteur germ theory of desease.
1859 Darwin theory of Evolution.
1899 Hoffman development of Aspirin.
1902 Mendel laws on heredity.
1928 Fleming discovery of penicilin.
1953 Watson - Crick discovery of DNA Structure.
Energy in Quantum
In the 1700s, the discovery of Elements by several people like Lavoisier, Cronstedt etc. led to one of the first models for the atom by Dalton in 1805. In the 1870s, Boltzmann described the atomic level behavior of particles in motion with statistical mechanics igniting the quantum mechanics. It is important to note the separation between atomistic models of the mater and the thermodynamics laws. The first to build a statistical formalism for thermodynamics is Boltzmann, suggesting discrete energy levels. The entropy equation found by Boltzmann was the first to adopt atomistic models of matter in thermodynamics. The Brownian motion and the UV catastrophe were the basis for Einstein and Planck to adopt the quantum physics. In the 1900s, quantum mechanics were introduced based on the wave-particle duality, thus wave functions were used to describe electrons as electromagnetic waves and particles instead of classical functions used to describe electrons as pure particles. The Maxwell equations for electromagnetic waves combined with D'Alembert equations for standing waves gave birth to the quantum physics formalism displayed in the Schrodinger equation. This progress allowed the development of electrical energy, communication tools, chemical and automobile industries, as well as computers, mobile phones, renewable energies, and information technologies.
Chronology of Atomistic concepts
1672 Newton white light is a mixture of distinct coloured rays, the spectrum of light.
1676 Rømer first measurement of the speed of light.
1751 Franklin lightning is electrical.
1785 Coulomb the force between charges depends on their magnitude and distance.
1795 Gauss fundamental principles of magnetism.
1800 Herschel discovery of Infrared light.
1801 Ritter discovery of ultraviolet light.
1803 Young double slit experiment, light is a wave.
1805 Dalton atomic theory.
1820 Ampere equivalence between magnets and currents.
1820 Ørsted relationship between electricity and magnetism, electromagnetism.
1827 Ohm the speed of currents driven by a difference of potential may be resisted.
1831 Faraday electromagnetic induction.
1852 Beer concentration and light absorption correlate.
1864 Maxwell theory of electromagnetism.
1869 Mendeleev periodic table of elements.
1871 Rayleigh light scattering explains the blue color of the sky, Rayleigh scattering.
1873 Van der Waals intermolecular forces exist in real gas.
1874 Stoney electricity consists of discrete negative particles 'electrons'.
1877 Boltzmann probability explains entropy by distributing atoms on energy levels.
1887 Hertz discovery of electromagnetic waves.
1895 Röntgen discovery of X-rays.
1896 Becquerel-Curie discovery of radioactivity.
1896 Wien discovery of black body radiation.
1896 Zeeman-Lorentz magnetic moment intreraction with magnetic field.
1893 Werner coordination compounds, complexes.
1898 Thomson discovery of the electron in cathode ray, plum pudding model of atom.
1900 Planck explication of the emission spectrum of a black body.
1905 Einstein theory of special relativity, Brownian motion, and photoelectric effect.
1909 Millikan determination of the charge of an electron.
1911 Rutherford atomic nucleus.
1911 Onnes superconductivity.
1912 Von Laue X-ray diffraction.
1912 Lagmuir monolayer surface adsorption.
1912 Debye molecular dipole.
1913 Moseley definition of atomic number.
1913 Bragg X-ray crystallography.
1913 Bohr Model of the atom with quantum orbital angular momenta.
1916 Somerfield n, k and m as principal, azimuthal and magnetic quantum numbers.
1916 Lewis chemical bonding and valence theory.
1918 Noether conservation of angular momentum.
1922 Stern-Gerlach observation of a splitting, spin birth.
1923 de Broglie wave-particle duality for electrons.
1924 Pauli intrinsic spin for proton and exclusion principle.
1926 Schrodinger the wave function formula.
1926 Born the wavefunction is a probability.
1927 Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
1927 Phipps-Taylor existence of a dipole momentum of electrons, spin.
1928 Raman light scattering or Raman effect.
1929 Dirac relativistic wave function equation, intrinsic angular momentum (s = ½).
1932 Chadwick discovery of the neutron.
1938 Rabi nuclear magnetic resonance.
1939 Hahn nuclear fission.
1945 Bloch-Purcell discovered NMR spectroscopy.
1948 Feynman quantum electrodynamics.
1958 Mössbauer nuclear resonance fluorescence, gamma rays.
1964 Ernst Fourier Transform NMR spectroscopy.
1973 Lauterbur Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Chemical elements
The names of chemical element refer to astronomical objects, mineral substances, regions, elements' properties, and scientists.
While 'gen' derives from genesis or generation, 'ium' is related to the metallic nature of the element (or at least thought metallic at the discovery).
Celestial bodies
Metal Gold Silver Iron Mercury Tin Copper Lead
Celestial body Sun Moon Mars Mercury Jupiter Venus Saturn
Days Latin Solis Lunae Martis Mercuri Jovis Veneris Saturni
Days French Dimanche Lundi Mardi Mercredi Jeudi Vendredi Samedi
Days English Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
Colors
Cesium (Cs) Caesius Latin bluish gray colors of its lines in its emission spectrum.
Chlorine (Cl) Khloros Greek yellow green color of the gas.
Chromium (Cr) Khroma Greek different chromium compounds have different colors.
Indium (In) Indicum Latin indigo colors of its lines in its emission spectrum.
Iodine (I) loeides Greek violet color of its vapor.
Iridium (Ir) Iris Greek rainbow solutions of iridium compounds show a variety of colors.
Rhodium (Rh) Rhodon Greek rose color of solutions of rhodium salts.
Properties
Hydrogen (H) Hydros Greek for water and -gen(Greek) for producing.
Nitrogen (N) Niter Greek for saltpeter,-gen(Greek) for producing.
Oxygen (O) Oksys Greek for acidic,-gen(Greek) for producing.
Phosphorus (P) Phos Greek for light,-phero(Greek) for bearing.
Zinc (Zn) Zinke German for spike.
Regions
Germanium (Ge) C.A.Winkler living in Germany
Polonium (Po) M. Curie born and raised in Polland
Gallium (Ga) Latin for France
Hafnium (Hf) Latin for Copenhagen
Lutetium (Lu) Latin for Paris (Lutetia Parisorum)
Persons
Curium (Cm) Pierre and Marie Curie
Ensteinium (Es) Albert Enstein
Hahnium (Ha) Otto Hahn
Lawrencium (Lr) Ernest O. Lawrence
See Reference for an exhaustive list.
Fundamental conventions and constants
Fundamental conventions and constants
The international system of units consists of seven fundamental parameters, thus, seven base units.
time seconds (s)
length metre (m)
mass kilogram (kg)
electric current ampere (A)
temperature kelvin (K).
amount of substance mole (mole)
luminous intensity candela (cd )
Seven fundamental constants correspond to the seven fundamental parameters.
Cs hyperfine frequency ΔνCs 9192631770 Hz.
speed of light c 299792458 m/s
Planck constant h 6.62607015×10−34 J⋅s
elementary charge e 1.602176634×10−19 C
Boltzmann constant k 1.380649×10−23 J/K
Avogadro constant NA 6.02214076×1023 mol−1
luminous efficacy Kcd 683 lm/W
This system gives 22 derived units, among which:
radian rad plane angle
hertz Hz frequency
newton N force
pascal Pa pressure
joule J energy
watt W power
coulomb C electric charge
volt V electric potential difference
farad F capacitance
ohm Ω electrical resistance
siemens S electrical conductance
weber Wb magnetic flux
tesla T magnetic flux density
henry H inductance
degree Celsius °C Celsius temperature
katal kat catalytic activity
Some other important constants:
Permeability of vacuum 1.25663706 e-06 N A-2
Permittivity of vacuum 8.854187817 e-12 F m-1
Constant of gravitation 6.67259 e-11 m3 kg-1 s-2
Elementary charge 1.60217733 e-19 C
Bohr magneton 9.2740154 e-24 J T-1
Bohr radius 5.29177249 e-11 m
Electron g-factor 2.002319304386
Electron mass 9.1093897 e-31 kg
Proton mass 1.6726231 e-27 kg
Neutron mass 1.6749286 e-27 kg
Faraday constant 96485.309 C mol-1
Gas constant 8.31451 J mol-1 K-1
Pi 3.14159265359
Chronology of inventions
1440 Gutenberg the printing press.
1450 D'Armati the glasses.
1480 Da Vinci the parachute, the diving suit.
1510 Henlein the watch.
1671 Liebniz the calculator.
1698 Savery the steam pump.
1712 Newcomen the engine.
1714 Fahrenheit the thermometer.
1709 Cristofori the piano.
1800 Volta the battery.
1804 Trevithick the train.
1816 Niépce the camera.
1817 Sauerbronn the bicycle.
1821 Fraday the electric motor.
1824 Aspdin the portland cement.
1827 Wheatstone the microphone.
1829 Bartner the typewriter.
1830 Thimonnier the sewing machine.
1833 Babbage the computer.
1843 Bain the telegraph.
1850 Butters the dishwasher.
1851 King the washing machine.
1856 Tesla the alternating current.
1876 Bell the telephone.
1880 Edison the light bulbe.
1886 Benz the car.
1891 Lippmann the coloured photography.
1897 Marconi the radio.
1901 Carrier the air conditionner.
1903 Wright the airplane.
1907 Baekeland the plastic.
1913 Wolf the refrigerator.
1926 Berd the television.
1945 Spencer the microwave.
1956 McCarthy the artificial intelligence.
1973 Cooper the mobile phone.
1978 Parkinson the GPS.
1989 Berners-Lee the internet.
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