English 11A Glossary - Technical Words
English 11A Vocab List - Vocabulary Words
Reminder!
These notes are to help you study and remind you what will be covered by the Post-Test! You still need to re-read the Reading Selections (and go back to take a second look at the "Analysis" Sections in Edmentum)!
The idea of an American identity has changed significantly over time. As soon as the colonists came to the New World from Europe, they began writing letters, essays, and articles that documented their daily experiences and hardships.
In the 1800s, the sudden influx of immigrants to the United States from different countries led to changes in the American identity in new, unprecedented ways. More perspectives from Europe, Asia, and throughout the world became part of American literature. Many American writers wrote about their own perspectives.
Major events in US history often have profound effects on American literature.
In his poem "From the Dark Tower," African American Countee Cullen describes his perspective on racial relations in the United States.
When Cullen speaks of planting while others reap, and standing "abject and mute," he is speaking about the racial injustices present in US society. As these injustices have changed over time, the American identity has also shifted. Those changes are, in turn, reflected in American literature.
For more information, click here to read/review "From the Dark Tower" by Countee Cullen.
Don't forget to follow up by reading the Analysis of this text in the Tutorial "Perspectives in American Literature" in Unit 1!
In "I Hear America Singing," Walt Whitman presents the United States as a merging of different types of American voices. He describes Americans through what they sing as they work:
Each singing what belongs to him or her and to none else . . .
Singing with open mouths their strong melodious songs.
This chorus of voices rises up to describe the American people as different, yet sharing the same vision. Their identity is an industrious, motivated, and forward-thinking people. By using workers from different occupations with different perspectives, Whitman allows American readers to see themselves reflected in the poem. He also establishes a connected identity between Americans of every skill and occupation, from the boatmen to the ploughboys. By creating this connection, Whitman illustrates the idea that every American has an equal opportunity to be a part of the American voice.
Please click here to read/review "I Hear America Singing."
Don't forget to follow up by reading the Analysis of this text in the Tutorial "Perspectives in American Literature" in Unit 1!
Langston Hughes is one of the best-known African American writers in American literature. A prolific poet, short-story writer, and playwright, Hughes was greatly influenced by the Harlem Renaissance. During this movement, which was centered in the Harlem area of New York City in the 1920s and early 1930s, writers and artists explored African American life in a new way.
In "I, Too," Langston Hughes describes America as having a divided identity. He establishes a clearly defined distinction between those who sit at the table to eat—people Hughes depicts as holding a place of privilege and participation—and those who eat in the kitchen, including Hughes himself. He writes, "They send me to eat in the kitchen / When company comes."
Hughes's message of a divided United States sharply contrasts with the message that Whitman presents in "I Hear America Singing."
Although at first the speaker in "I, Too" seems to accept that he belongs in the kitchen, the second half of the poem refutes this idea:
Tomorrow,
I'll be at the table
When company comes.
Here, Hughes shows hope for a unified country, one in which "I" and "they" can sit together at the table to eat. This shift signifies that the poem’s speaker will be treated as an equal in American society, erasing the deep divisions described at the beginning of the poem.
Please click here to read/review "I, too," by Langston Hughes.
Don't forget to follow up by reading the Analysis of this text in the Tutorial "Perspectives in American Literature" in Unit 1!
Toni Morrison, born in 1931 was a Nobel Prize and Pulitzer Prize winner. A novelist, editor, and professor Morrison, in her writing, uses poetic language and bold themes to describe her African American characters. Her well-known novels include The Bluest Eye, Beloved, Jazz, Love and Sula. She was the first African American woman to receive the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1993. She also received many accolades and honorary degrees.
Amy Tan is a Chinese American writer. She wrote a short story in 1985 that was part of the novel The Joy Luck Club. The novel looks at how different generations of Chinese women have overcome difficulties while adapting to life in America. The book has won many awards and has been translated into several languages. Amy Tan's fiction explores relationships between women. The Joy Luck Club, The Kitchen God's Wife, and The Bonesetter's Daughter explore the mother-daughter relationship. The Hundred Secret Senses explores the relationship between sisters.
Contemporary means something happening near or at the current time. It refer to things, people, or situations that are related or recent. So contemporary poets are recent poets who produce or publish poetry around the same time.
Poets like Bill Collins use creative techniques and often humor to share their ideas in unique ways. Collins is known for his clever conversational style.
Pat Mora writes poetry that appeals to a wide range of audiences. She often describes her experiences growing up as a Latina in El Paso, Texas.
With poems like “We Real Cool,” poet Gwendolyn Brooks continues to mesmerize audiences.
Poet Naomi Shihab Nye often takes on more serious issues in her poetry and advocates for peace. She reflects on her experiences growing up as a Palestinian American living in St. Louis, Missouri, Jerusalem, and San Antonio, Texas.
Independent clauses:
has a subject and a verb and forms a complete sentence or makes sense by itself.
Streton and Ryan are going biking along the bayou this afternoon.
Sylvester forgot his helmet at home.
Dependent Clauses:
has a subject and a verb but does not make sense by itself or form a complete sentence; may begin with a subordinating conjunction such as when, until, although, while, that, since, and before. (note: there is no period at the end of these examples because dependent clauses are not complete sentences.)
Although he ran
When Dawn is finished reading her book
For other notes on Phrases and Clauses from ENG 9B, click here!
Simple Sentences
A simple sentence has one independent clause and no dependent clauses.
Example: The students played games.
A simple sentence can provide power and punch. Authors use simple sentences to emphasize important ideas. Many simple sentences can also create a conversational tone or add rhythm.
Compound Sentences
A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses linked with a conjunction (and, but) or a semicolon.
Example: The students played games at recess, but they went straight home after school.
In a compound sentence, two independent clauses balance each other in weight and importance while also bringing two ideas closer together by putting them in one sentence. Authors may use compound sentences to show contrast or equal importance.
Complex Sentences
A complex sentence is a sentence with one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
Example: The students played the games that the teacher had given them.
The independent clause tells us what is happening in the sentence (the students are playing games), and the dependent clause here gives us more detail about other elements of the statement (the games were given to them by the teacher). Complex sentences add dimension and richness to writing. Authors may use these sentences in formal writing to create a serious tone. Complex sentences are more sophisticated, have a formal tone, and show complicated relationships.
Complex Sentences
A compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
Example: The students played the games that the teacher had given them, but they went straight home after school.
A compound-complex sentence communicates several ideas in different clauses. Authors may use these sentences to express a relationship between different ideas in a sentence.
Need a refresher on what independent or dependent clauses are? Check the section right above this one!
Before European colonists arrived in the New World, Native peoples had lived across North America for thousands of years. Native peoples preserved their stories and history through the oral (which means spoken) tradition of storytelling. One well-known story type passed down by Native peoples and other groups is known as the creation, or origin, story.
Native peoples were the first to contribute to what would become American literature. While different in style and presentation than colonial settlers' writing, the Native oral tradition of storytelling and sharing history helps form the foundation of American literary history.
Stories in the ex nihilo (Latin for "from nothing") category begin with the creation of life from nothingness. Ex nihilo stories usually portray the creation of all of existence, not just of Earth or humanity. The creative force in these stories comes solely from an all-powerful deity. This category is primarily associated with monotheistic, or single-deity, religions.
World parent creation stories describe creation resulting from the forming or the breaking of a union between two powerful, primordial forces. These forces are represented in various ways, such as formless energies or ancient gods. Often the world parents are Sky, considered the father figure, and Earth, the mother figure.
Earth diver stories feature the planet emerging from water. Rather than describe the creation of all existence from nothing, as ex nihilo stories do, earth diver stories portray the creation of Earth from a vast expanse of water. The featured character is the earth diver, usually an animal, which dives into the water to bring up a small amount of sand or mud.
Often there are supporting characters—also animals—that make failed attempts at the dive. Once the earth diver is successful, the bit of mud or sand expands to become dry land.
In emergence creation stories, life from another world surfaces into this one, leading to creation. Emergence stories make up a unique category because they often begin with the world already fully formed but uninhabited.
The emergence of life from another world is a common theme among the traditions of Native peoples.
Don't forget to follow up by reading the Analysis of this story in the Tutorial "The Native American Voice" in Unit 1!
The arrival of European colonists greatly affected Native peoples. The impact on their lifestyle and culture led to many conflicts and clashes with the colonists.
Following the European discovery of the Americas, several countries, including England and Spain, began to explore the region. Their goal was to establish colonies in the new territory. During the American colonial era, the English colonized the eastern coast of North America, while the Spanish explored the South American continent, working their way up to what is now the southwestern United States.
The migration of Europeans to the Americas caused conflict. The concept of owning a piece of land and prohibiting others from using it was foreign to many Native peoples. Disputes quickly arose as Europeans started claiming exclusive ownership of the land.
The Native American literature of the colonial period mostly talks about the conflicts and tensions between Native peoples and European colonists. "How the Spaniards Came to Shung-opovi, How They Built a Mission There, and How the Hopi Destroyed the Mission," is one such story.
The subject of the story is a culture clash between the Hopi peoples and the Spaniards and a backlash against the Spanish missionaries’ exploitation of the Hopi peoples.
To read/review this story, click here!
Don't forget to follow up by reading the Analysis of this text in the Tutorial "The Native American Voice" in Unit 1!
Bradford was born in Yorkshire, England. After the death of his parents when he was 7 years old, his father’s brothers raised him as a farmer. After teaching himself Latin, Greek, Dutch, French, and Hebrew, the 12-year-old Bradford became interested in theology and made the life-changing decision to apprentice under the Puritan minister Richard Clyfton.
By that time, a fundamental disagreement had been building for 35 years between the Episcopal Church of England and the Puritan religious sect. During Bradford’s apprenticeship, the rift reached such severity that he emigrated to the Netherlands.
In 1613, Bradford and other church members negotiated a contract with the London Company to establish a colony in the Americas. Of Plymouth Plantation is Bradford's recounting of the harrowing journey and the hardships and successes of those who settled Plymouth Colony.
To read/review excerpts from Of Plymouth Plantation, please click here!
Don't forget to follow up by reading the Analysis of this text in the Tutorial "The Native American Voice" in Unit 1!
A phrase is a group of words that acts as a single part of speech.
Sentences are composed of phrases. The type of phrase is determined by the part of speech it represents. For example, a phrase that acts as a noun is called a noun phrase.
Noun phrase: A noun phrase acts as a noun within a sentence.
The gigantic black dog barreled down the street toward me.
The italicized phrase acts as the subject noun. One way to identify a noun phrase is to replace the phrase with just the noun. If the sentence still makes sense, the phrase is a noun phrase.
The dog barreled down the street toward me.
Verb phrase: A verb phrase acts as the verb within a sentence.
The gigantic black dog barreled down the street toward me.
The italicized phrase acts as the active verb. As with noun phrases, if the sentence makes sense after replacing the phrase with just the verb, the phrase is a verb phrase.
The gigantic black dog barreled toward me.
Prepositional phrase: A prepositional phrase begins with and acts as a preposition within a sentence.
The gigantic black dog barreled down the street toward me.
The italicized phrase acts as a preposition. Again, replacing the phrase with a single preposition should maintain sentence clarity if the phrase is prepositional.
The gigantic black dog barreled down toward me.
And here's a worksheet about phrases from ENG 10A that might help with your writing!
Prepositional phrases can also act as adjectives or adverbs. If the prepositional phrase is also an adjectival phrase, it will modify the noun that precedes it.
The gigantic black dog from the neighbor’s house barreled down the street toward me.
The italicized phrase begins with the preposition from, so it is prepositional. The phrase also modifies the preceding noun phrase, The gigantic black dog, so it is also an adjectival phrase.
If the prepositional phrase is also an adverbial phrase, it will modify the verb that precedes it.
The gigantic black dog from the neighbor’s house barreled down the street toward me.
The italicized phrase begins with a preposition, down, so it is prepositional. The phrase also modifies the preceding verb, barreled, so it is an adverbial phrase too.
The colonial era set the stage for the literature of future generations. The stories passed down by American Indians helped define early American storytelling. This tradition included origin stories that described when, how, and why the world and its people came to be.
Early American literature also included accounts from European colonists. Through letters, oral accounts, poems, and stories, they described their experience of crossing the Atlantic Ocean and settling in an unfamiliar land. The literature of these immigrants came to define the colonial literary period.
Many colonists found strength in their religion. While minds in Europe explored new discoveries and advances that affected scientific thought for years to come, preachers in the American colonies sought to keep colonists fervently connected to their faiths. As a result, religious themes dominated literature from this period.
In the eighteenth century, a passionate interest in religion and salvation developed in the American colonies. This period became known as the Great Awakening. Preachers and missionaries focused on capturing the emotions rather than the intellect of an audience to get their message across.
Some early colonial preachers spoke calmly, using vivid imagery to power their message, while other preachers were more dramatic, shouting and even weeping to convey their message. All swore that eternal hell and damnation were waiting for any unconverted sinners. Many colonists listened, and the effects of the Great Awakening influenced the colonies for many years.
1607 - Jamestown: One hundred Englishmen arrived in three ships to establish Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in America. At first, the settlers faced intense hostility from American Indians who had already been in conflict with Spanish settlers. One ship was attacked even before the English settlers landed in Jamestown. As time went by, the relationship between the settlers and the native peoples improved.
1628 - Salem: Puritans arrived in Salem to establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony. King Charles I had granted them a charter a year prior to their arrival. The Puritans wanted to practice their religion freely without any meddling from the bishops of England. Today, Salem is well known as the site of the Salem witch trials of 1692. During these trials, more than 200 people were accused of practicing witchcraft. Despite a lack of evidence, 19 colonists were put to death.
1630 — 1647 - Of Plymouth Plantation: Of Plymouth Plantation is the most important record of Pilgrim life. It describes how the Pilgrims journeyed from England aboard the Mayflower in 1620 and settled in America, where they could practice their religion freely. Written from 1630 to 1647, Of Plymouth Plantation consists of journals by William Bradford, the governor of Plymouth Colony for 30 years.
The Pilgrims were Puritans who had separated from the Church of England. Puritans believed the church had violated the principles of true Christians. They wished to "purify" it by stripping it of priestly rituals, such as the use of holy water and elaborate vestments. Instead, the Puritans advocated prayer, preaching, and self-examination to become more "godly."
In the spring of 1621, the Pilgrims befriended an American Indian named Squanto, who helped them survive in the new land. Squanto also helped the Pilgrims make a peace treaty with Massasoit, the Wampanoag chief. That autumn, the Pilgrims invited the Wampanoag to celebrate their first harvest in what became known as the first Thanksgiving.
1634 — 1638 - The Pequot War: The Pequot War began when American Indians allied with the Pequots murdered English smuggler John Stone and his crew aboard their ship. The Pequots initially made peace by inviting the colonists to settle in Connecticut. But tensions soon grew again, and the Puritans demanded that the Pequot hand over Stone's murderers. The Pequot refused. Talks broke down and violence erupted. In May 1637, the colonists, along with their Mohegan and Narragansett allies, surrounded a Pequot village at Mystic, Connecticut. These forces torched the village and killed hundreds of men, women, and children. Defeated, the Pequot agreed to the terms of a treaty in 1638.
1650 - The Tenth Muse: The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America is a collection of poems by Anne Bradstreet, who is considered America's first important poet. This collection, published in 1650, is the first book by a female writer in America to be published and the only work by Bradstreet published during her lifetime.
1662 - The Day of Doom: The Day of Doom is a religious poem by Michael Wigglesworth published in 1662. The poem helped the Puritans remember the beliefs by which they lived. The Day of Doom was America's first bestseller and could be found in homes throughout New England.
1663 - The Eliot Bible: John Eliot, a missionary in Massachusetts, translated the Bible into Algonquin, an American Indian language. This translation, which became known as the "Eliot Bible," supported Eliot's efforts to convert American Indians to Christianity. He became known as the "Apostle to the Indians." The first complete Bible printed in America, the Eliot Bible was created 120 years before the first complete English edition was printed in America.
1675 — 1676 - King Philip’s War: King Philip's War marked the last significant effort by American Indians to drive the English settlers out of southern New England. "King Philip" was the name that the settlers gave to Metacom, the Wampanoag chief. As the settlers took more land and the Wampanoag became increasingly dependent on English goods, Matacom saw his bargaining power with the English disappear. He believed it was time to fight before the settlers destroyed his people.
Metacom led the Wampanoag and their allies in a violent uprising, beginning with a raid on the colonial village of Swansea in June 1675. Fighting quickly erupted across the region. The war continued until August 1676, when Metacom was captured and beheaded. By the end of this bloody conflict, about 600 colonists and 3,000 American Indians had been killed. Some of Metacom's supporters escaped to Canada. Those who surrendered were shipped to the West Indies as slaves. The settlers saw their victory as a sign of God's favor.
1707 - The Redeemed Captive: In The Redeemed Captive, John Williams, a minister, gives an account of his captivity following a raid on the English settlement of Deerfield, Massachusetts. This attack was part of the French and Indian wars (1689–1763) between England and France. This series of wars spilled over to North America, where both countries formed alliances with American Indians.
Before dawn on February 29, 1704, a force of 300 French and American Indian invaders fell on Deerfield, where Williams and his family lived. The raiders killed his two youngest children and took him and other members of his family captive. Along with more than 100 other English settlers, they were marched 300 miles to Montreal, Canada. After his release in late 1706, Williams wrote the story of his captivity, titled The Redeemed Captive Returning to Zion. It was published in 1707.
1732 - Poor Richard’s Almanac: Benjamin Franklin first published Poor Richard's Almanac in 1732. He wrote as astronomer Richard Saunders, a fictional character. This yearly publication included weather predictions, poems, jokes, and advice. Later, Franklin also used Richard to voice his ideas about hard work, thrift, and moderation. Each edition included a number of proverbs that expressed these ideas, some of which are still used today:
"A penny saved is a penny earned."
"Remember that time is money."
"An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure."
Franklin published Poor Richard's Almanac through 1757.
1741 - "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God": Puritan minister Jonathan Edwards delivered his sermon "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" to convince people to forsake their sinful ways and attain salvation through penance. A leading intellectual figure in colonial America, Edwards played a key role in the religious revivals that brought about the Great Awakening.
1754 — 1763 - The French and Indian War: During the French and Indian War, Britain and France battled for control of territories in North America. Over time, both countries had expanded their territory into the Ohio River Valley. Territorial skirmishes escalated in 1753, when the French built a series of forts in the region to keep the British out. The French refused British demands to abandon the forts and return to Canada. So in 1754, George Washington, a young lieutenant colonel at the time, led colonial troops in an effort to force the French out. The French, who had allied with a number of American Indian tribes, defeated the colonial troops at Fort Necessity in what became the first battle of the war.
In 1756, the war spread to Europe, where it was called the Seven Years' War. That same year, the British strengthened their forces, and in 1760 they defeated the French at Quebec and Montreal. Britain then took aim at French territories in the Caribbean. The war came to an end in 1763 with the Treaty of Paris, which gave the British all of France's holdings east of the Mississippi River, except New Orleans.
Born in 1612, Anne Bradstreet had a wide range of experiences in her adventurous life. She was a Puritan in England who, with many other Puritans looking to reform the church, moved to the American colonies to escape religious persecution. While still in England, Bradstreet studied Puritan theology, including the teachings, sermons, and books of various preachers. Later, after settling in the colonies, she wrote poems that demonstrated her knowledge of religion, history, philosophy, and current events.
Bradstreet’s family, which included her husband and eight children, encouraged her writing. Her brother-in-law carried her poems to England, where they were published in 1650 as The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America.
Bradstreet's husband published a second edition of the book after her death that included her later work, much of which was more personal and even expressed spiritual doubt. The poem examined in this lesson (Unit 1, "Colonial Literature") comes from a time in Bradstreet’s life when she was more secure in her faith.
Click here to read/review this poem!
Don't forget to follow up by reading the Analysis of this text in the Tutorial "Colonial Literature" in Unit 1!
Jonathan Edwards, a Puritan pastor from Massachusetts, lived from 1703 to 1758. At 23 he became the pastor of the church at Northampton, Massachusetts, considered the largest and most influential church outside of Boston. As the Great Awakening began, Edwards published A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God, which described how the Great Awakening took effect in his parish. The text served as a model for other revivalists in the colonies. According to scholar Perry Miller, Edwards's language and thoughts are "both an index of American society and a comment upon it."
Click here to read/review this speech/sermon!
Don't forget to follow up by reading the Analysis of this text in the Tutorial "Colonial Literature" in Unit 1!
Analogies describe the relationships between terms or ideas. They demonstrate the meaning of what is unknown by comparing it to what is known.
Her voice was as high-pitched as a tiny bell's peal.
Even though readers can’t hear the woman's voice, they might understand just how high-pitched her voice is if they have heard the sound of a tiny bell.
Grammatical analogies are often used to test students on either their knowledge of a vocabulary word or their understanding of the relationships between words and concepts.
Synonym Analogies - Comparing Words with Similar Meanings
Example: Inscribe is to write as dictate is to speak.
Inscribe is a synonym for write, just as dictate is a synonym for speak.
Antonym Analogies - Comparing Words with Opposing Meanings
Example: Unfathomable is to believable as clarify is to confuse.
Unfathomable means the opposite of believable, just as clarify means the opposite of confuse.
Description Analogies - Comparing Words with Common Characteristics or Qualities
Example: Monarch is to country as president is to company.
A monarch is the leader of a country, just as a president is the leader of a company.
Function Analogies - Comparing Words with Similar Purposes or Actions
Example: Leg is to human as wing is to butterfly.
Human legs function in the same way as the wings of a butterfly; both are used in movement.
Until the mid-1760s, British subjects were generally content with life in the American colonies; separation from Great Britain was an idea that most colonists did not even consider. However, when King George III and Parliament imposed numerous restrictive regulations that the American colonists felt infringed on—or violated—their rights, angry defiance spread in the American colonies. This dissent led to the eruption of the American Revolution in 1775.
The literature of the American Revolution differed from the personal religious writings of the Puritans. Seventeenth-century European intellectuals had inspired writers of the age of reason to use sound, logical arguments in their writing. As a result, writers of this era valued reason, order, and moderation over faith. While many writers continued to mention God in their literary works, often as a means of persuasion, they tended to avoid themes of the afterlife, and instead, focused on defining and pursuing a better government and society.
Click here to read/review "Speech to the Constitutional Convention."
Don't forget to follow up by reading the Analysis of this text in the Tutorial "Poetry In The Age of Reason" in Unit 1!
couplet—a pair of rhyming lines
figurative language—nonliteral language that helps readers imagine a description, adding clarity and meaning to the text
genre—a classification of literature characterized by particular content and form
iamb—a metric unit of poetic verse containing an unaccented syllable followed by an accented syllable
iambic pentameter—a meter in poetry with a pattern of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable that is repeated five times in a line
imagery—descriptive language that relies on sensory details to help readers imagine the setting, characters, and details of a story or poem
literal language—language that expresses the primary meanings of words rather than their implied or metaphorical meanings
metaphor—a figurative comparison that does not use the words like or as
meter—recurring patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables in a poem; the beat or rhythm of a poem
mood—the prevailing feeling or emotion of a literary work; also called atmosphere
personification—figurative language describing something nonhuman by giving it human traits or abilities
rhyme—words that begin with different sounds but end in the same sound
rhyme scheme—the pattern of rhymes in a poem, notated with lowercase letters
assonance—the repetition of the same vowel sound followed by different consonant sounds within several closely grouped words
alliteration—the repetition of the same beginning sound among several closely grouped words
You can find these and other Tutorial terms in the Glossary at the top of this page!
Influenced by British poets, poets of the American Revolution typically adhered to the traditional forms of the ancient Greeks and Romans in their writing and deviated from the spare style of the Puritans. The resulting style came to be known as neoclassical poetry.
Neoclassical means a new form based on a classic one; neoclassical poetry therefore describes poems that attempt to recapture the classical style of the Greeks and Romans. These works often used mythological imagery, such as gods and muses in flowing robes or engulfed in rays of light.
Neoclassical poets also employed elevated, sophisticated language and heroic couplets, or couplets written in iambic pentameter. Additionally, the subjects of the poems often focused on political ideas.
Phillis Wheatley was the first African American poet in North America to be published. Born in West Africa around 1753, she was enslaved and brought to the American colonies at age 7. Unlike many slaveholders, Wheatley's owners taught her to read and write English. Her first poem was published when she was 17 years old, proving her great skill with the language. Three years later, in 1773, her book of poetry titled Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral was published in London.
Wheatley's fame as a poet declined in the later years of her life. She became a free woman in 1773, but she endured poverty and isolation. She was unable to publish any additional work before her death in 1784. In more recent times, literary critics have given Wheatley’s work renewed recognition.
In 1775, at the beginning of the American Revolution, George Washington was appointed commander in chief of the Continental Army. He guided his troops in a six-year war for the colonies' freedom. Wheatley paid tribute to the commander by writing "To His Excellency General Washington." The poem also paid tribute to Christopher Columbus by describing America as a radiant goddess, whom she called Columbia.
Wheatley used personification in her work. Personification is a common figurative language technique that writers often apply for a specific purpose. Understanding the connections between the figurative language and the central concept explored in the text can make reading poetry a more enriching experience.
Click here to read/review this poem.
Don't forget to follow up by reading the Analysis of this text in the Tutorial "Poetry In The Age of Reason" in Unit 1!
Participles and infinitives are two types of verbals.
A participle is a verb form that acts as an adjective and modifies (changes) a noun or a pronoun.
Present participles: End in "-ing" and are used for continuous tenses. For example, "jumping" is the present participle of the verb "jump".
Past participles: End in "-ed", "-en", "-d", "-t", "-n", or "-ne". For example, "asked", "eaten", "saved", "dealt", "seen", and "gone".
An infinitive is a base verb form that usually begins with the word “to” and can act as a noun, adjective, or adverb. For example, "to eat," "to walk," "to run," "to dress," and "to shout". Both participles and infinitives can extend into phrases.
Infinitives can have two forms: the "to-infinitive" and the "infinitive without to". The "to-infinitive" is made up of "to" plus the base form of the verb, like "I want to speak to you" or "We came here to work, not to play". The "infinitive without to" is made up of just the base form of the verb, like "She made us wait for half an hour" or "John lets the dog sleep on the sofa".
A participial phrase is simply a participle, past or present, along with any modifiers and complements. Look for the participial phrase in this sentence:
Maria's steadily increasing headache distracted her from her studies.
Here, increasing is the present participle. The participial phrase “steadily increasing" acts as an adjective to modify (change) the noun headache. Here's another example:
He stood with his ear pressed to the door in an attempt to eavesdrop on their private conversation.
Pressed is the past participle in this example. The participial phrase “pressed to the door" modifies ear.
An infinitive phrase is an infinitive along with any modifiers and complements. Take a look at this sentence:
The dog was excited to receive a treat for her good behavior.
The infinitive in this example is “to receive." It is part of the larger infinitive phrase “to receive a treat for her good behavior," which acts as an adverb modifying (changing) the adjective excited. Here's another example:
He stood with his ear pressed to the door in an attempt to eavesdrop on the private conversation.
Notice that, along with a participial phrase, this sentence also contains an infinitive phrase. “To eavesdrop” is the infinitive. The infinitive phrase “to eavesdrop on the private conversation" acts as an adjective that modifies the noun attempt. In the following example, the infinitive phrase begins the sentence:
To show any concern was a characteristic that the captain regarded as a weakness.
In this case, the infinitive phrase acts as a noun and is the subject of the sentence.
The age of reason greatly influenced the formation of the United States and its declaration of independence from Britain. Writers of this era used persuasive essays as a powerful tool to convince hesitant colonists to support the American Revolution. Works by authors such as Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, and Thomas Paine spoke directly to the American colonists while stressing the individual rights of the people. Some writers, including Phillis Wheatley, emphasized the importance of these rights for women and African Americans.
Persuasive essays were most often published in short pamphlets, which were made inexpensively and distributed to a wide audience. About 2,000 different pamphlets were published between 1763 and 1783. The pamphlets stirred up revolutionary feelings, pushed Americans to challenge British rule, and influenced them to create a sound government. Politicians used these pamphlets to question traditional customs and institutions, pushing for change and for what they believed would be a better life in America.
American literature and art also developed as a unique entity during the age of reason. Theaters were built throughout the colonies, and artists, musicians, and poets celebrated the American identity in their works. Soon after the Revolutionary War, Americans built new universities in several states, emphasizing the importance they placed on education.
1754 - The French and Indian War Begins: During the French and Indian War, Britain and France battled for control of territories in North America. Over time, both countries had expanded their territory into the Ohio River Valley. Territorial skirmishes escalated in 1753, when the French built a series of forts in the region to keep the British out. The French refused British demands to abandon the forts and return to Canada. So in 1754, George Washington, a young lieutenant colonel at the time, led colonial troops in an effort to force the French out. The French, who had allied with a number of American Indian tribes, defeated the colonial troops at Fort Necessity in what became the first battle of the war.
February 10, 1763 - The Treaty of Paris: In 1756, the French and Indian war spread to Europe, where it was called the Seven Years' War. That same year, the British strengthened their forces, and in 1760 they defeated the French at Quebec and Montreal. Britain then took aim at French territories in the Caribbean. The war came to an end in 1763 with the Treaty of Paris, which gave the British all of France's holdings east of the Mississippi River, except New Orleans. Although Britain won the war, the debts incurred during the war led to tension between the British government and the American colonies.
March 1765 - The Stamp Act: The French and Indian War resulted in a large debt for Britain that the country was unsure how to pay. Britain also decided that troops were needed in the American colonies to prevent France from recovering any territory and to protect the colonists from American Indians. The British Parliament and the monarchy decided that the colonies should help pay to support these troops.
The Stamp Act of 1765 was one of Britain's first measures to raise funds. This act taxed all paper goods, including newspapers and legal documents, by requiring colonists to purchase stamps or stamped paper produced in Britain. Imagine buying a newspaper and finding that the price has increased because the paper on which it was printed needed a special watermark or stamp. You would understandably be upset.
Many American colonists thought the tax was unfair because they had no representation in Parliament and therefore no say in the levying of taxes. After months of fiery protest, the British government repealed the hated Stamp Act.
1767 — 1770 - The Townshend Acts: In 1767 British Parliament again attempted to tax the colonies by passing the Townshend Acts. The acts were named for Charles Townshend, a British politician in charge of the British treasury.
The first Townshend act placed new taxes on goods such as lead, glass, tea, paint, and paper that were imported by the colonies from Britain. Unlike the Stamp Act, which imposed a direct tax when an individual bought an item, this act required merchants to pay the taxes. Another Townshend act established a customs agency in Boston to collect the taxes.
The colonists protested because merchants then raised their prices on finished goods to reflect the new taxes. In March 1770, the acts were partially repealed, although the tax on tea remained.
March 5, 1770 - The Boston Massacre: As tensions rose during the revolutionary period, Boston became the center of colonial resistance. In response, the British sent troops to the area in an attempt to keep order. The soldiers were not paid well and often had to look for additional work to make ends meet. These conditions added stress to the local economy, and many colonists resented the soldiers for taking jobs that could have been filled by colonists.
On March 5, 1770, a group of civilian colonists started harassing a British soldier on duty outside the Old State House in Boston. A group of British soldiers came to the scene to restore order. The colonists began throwing objects at the soldiers. In the confusion, the soldiers fired into the crowd, killing five people. This incident became known as the Boston Massacre. In the days following, the local government arrested and charged the British soldiers, but the colonists were still angry. The event became the focus of a rallying cry against British occupation.
1773 - The Tea Act and the Boston Tea Party: The Tea Act of 1773 was another attempt by Parliament to impose its right to tax and govern the American colonies. In the years before the American Revolution, the Townshend tax on tea helped create a thriving smuggling operation. Ship owners secretly brought tea from other countries into the colonies without paying the duty. When the British East India Company began to suffer, however, Parliament passed the Tea Act, allowing the company to sell tea directly to the colonies at a cheap price. This action undercut the local colonial merchants who sold smuggled tea and simultaneously gave the East India Company a monopoly on the tea trade. The Tea Act angered American colonists, who saw it as another example of crude British domination.
On the night of December 16, 1773, patriot Sam Adams led approximately 50 young Boston men who dressed as Mohawk Indians and carried tomahawks. They headed to the dock, where the most recent shipment of British tea was located. The men threw 45 tons of tea into the chilly waters of Boston Harbor. The Boston Tea Party became a symbol of the American colonists' resistance to British control.
1774 - The Intolerable Acts: To punish the Massachusetts colony for the Boston Tea Party, the British Parliament passed the Coercive Acts, known in the colonies as the Intolerable Acts:
The Boston Port Act, the first law passed, closed the port of Boston until the colonists paid for all the tea they had destroyed.
The Massachusetts Government Act revoked the colony's charter and reduced the colonists’ political rights.
The Administration of Justice Act allowed British officials accused of a crime in the colonies to be tried in Britain.
The Quartering Act required colonists to provide housing for British soldiers.
September 5, 1774 — October 26, 1774 - The First Continental Congress: In September 1774, 56 delegates from 12 colonies gathered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, at the First Continental Congress. Georgia did not send delegates but agreed to support any decisions made at the meeting. The delegates believed that the Intolerable Acts and other recent acts imposed by Britain posed a danger to the colonies. They discussed how to seek fair treatment from Britain. In the end, they agreed on two important actions: they would boycott all British commerce, and they would send a letter directly to King George III that requested the repeal of the Intolerable Acts and declared that Britain had no right to pass laws that affected the colonies.
1775 - Phillis Wheatley Writes "To His Excellency General Washington": Phillis Wheatley's poem "To His Excellency General Washington" commended the bravery of George Washington and his army and expressed the hope of a great future for America as an independent country under Washington's leadership. She sent the poem in a letter to George Washington in 1775. Washington wrote to Wheatley to thank her and invited her to meet him in person.
April 18, 1775 — April 19, 1775 - The Battles of Lexington and Concord: Throughout 1774 and 1775, American colonists continued to resist British rule. Fearing a backlash from the growing number of British soldiers in Boston, colonists began stockpiling weapons and organizing militias.
On the night of April 18, 1775, Massachusetts governor Thomas Gage, who was also a British general, sent 700 British soldiers to capture weapons stored in the small town of Concord near Boston. That night, patriot Paul Revere made his famous midnight ride warning the countryside of British troop movements.
The next morning, before reaching Concord, the British soldiers confronted a small colonial militia group in the town of Lexington. The British soldiers greatly outnumbered the militiamen, who fell back after fighting for a short time. The British continued on to Concord, encountering a larger militia force. The colonists defeated the British in the battle at Concord, and the British soldiers endured constant attacks while marching back to Boston, suffering nearly 300 casualties.
May 10, 1775 — July 4, 1776 - The Second Continental Congress: On May 10, 1775, delegates from all 13 colonies met in Philadelphia, forming the Second Continental Congress. Although most of the delegates were reluctant to openly declare independence from Britain, the congress voted to create the American Continental army with George Washington as its leader.
Later, as war erupted between the British soldiers and American colonists, five men—including John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson—began creating the Declaration of Independence, which voiced the American colonists' reasons for splitting from Britain's rule. The five-man committee drafted the Declaration of Independence in June, and the Continental Congress accepted the document on July 4, 1776.
1776 - Thomas Paine's Influential Pamphlets: In January 1776, Thomas Paine anonymously published his pamphlet Common Sense, in which he strongly argued in favor of the American colonies seeking independence from Britain. The pamphlet became extremely popular, selling more than 100,000 copies within a few months of its publication. Paine used simple writing in this pamphlet to capture the attention of the general American public. Later that year, Paine also began publishing a series of pamphlets titled The American Crisis. These persuasive pamphlets motivated the colonists and the emerging American army.
1783 - Noah Webster's Spelling Book: Noah Webster published his Spelling Book in 1783. The book’s goal was to teach American children how to read, pronounce, and write. The book became profoundly influential and popular in the United States, selling more than 100 million copies by the end of the 1800s. The publication of this book was also a major step toward standardizing American English.
1787 - The Federalist Papers: Written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay under the pseudonym Publius, The Federalist Papers urged citizens to accept the newly drafted US Constitution that would replace the United States’ first governing document, the Articles of Confederation. From a modern perspective, The Federalist Papers provide invaluable information about the thinking of the Founding Fathers.
1793 - The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin: Benjamin Franklin's publication of his autobiography is an important literary event of the Revolutionary era. This book covered diverse subjects reflecting the scope of Franklin's interests—from his contribution to the American Revolution to his scientific experiments to his personal opinions. Because Franklin is regarded as one of the eminent thinkers of his time, this autobiography provides valuable information about Franklin’s views and life events.
1795 - George Washington's Farewell Address: George Washington addressed the American people in a farewell letter after completing his second term as president of the United States. The letter discusses his service to the nation and also warns citizens of the young United States about issues that Washington feared posed internal and external dangers, including the formation of political parties and long-term alliances with other nations.
Make sure you're familiar with the following concepts:
Each of the terms above has been linked to previous class notes so that you can read up on them if you're unsure if you remember them!
Writers of persuasive texts must use sound evidence to build a strong argument. Such evidence includes the specific facts, data, references, personal examples, and expert opinions authors cite to support their claims. To persuade their audience of a particular viewpoint, authors cite these different forms of evidence to appeal to the reader’s sense of logic or emotions.
For more information about different types of evidence, click here to see these notes from ENG 10B!
Thomas Paine was a Revolutionary writer from Britain. After meeting Benjamin Franklin in London, he came to the American colonies in 1774. In 1776, Paine wrote a pamphlet called Common Sense, which challenged what he believed to be the injustices of monarchies and hereditary rule. The publication of Common Sense was a major factor leading to the Declaration of Independence.
Paine differed from many writers in the age of reason because he directly addressed common people instead of the educated elite. His straightforward language transmitted the idea that all people were capable of understanding politics and government. As a man without great wealth, education, or status, Paine believed that America was a place where people of ordinary descent, like himself, could find political power and economic success.
Keeping track of specific claims and relevant supporting evidence in persuasive essays is important to understanding an author’s arguments. One way to track arguments is by making a chart that lists each claim, supporting piece of evidence, and the type of appeal an author employs.
First, summarize the main point the author makes. Then take notes on the types of evidence that the author uses to support a claim.
Before reading Paine's "The Crisis, No. 1," consider the following questions, and use a table or notes to track arguments and evidence.
What is Paine's main argument in "The Crisis, No.1"? What type of evidence do you notice to support this argument? How does Paine's use of different kinds of evidence support his claims?
How does Paine convey his opinion? How do his tone and word choices indicate that he is trying to persuade the reader to agree with him?
The first line of Paine's essay, "These are the times that try men's souls," is one of the most famous of the American Revolution. What does Paine mean by this statement?
See more tips and tricks for reading here, from notes in ENG 10B!
After the start of the Revolutionary War, Paine traveled with the Continental Army to report on its progress. He wrote and published a collection of essays entitled The American Crisis. General George Washington ordered that the first essay, "The Crisis, No. 1," be read to the Continental Army before the Battle of Trenton in order to raise the soldiers’ spirits and inspire them to fight.
You should be familiar with the following concepts:
adjective - a word that describes a noun, person, or thing, and can provide details about their qualities, states, or quantities. Adjectives can answer questions like "how many?", "which one?", or "what kind?"
For example, in the sentence "The large tree fell onto the road," "large" is an adjective that describes what kind of tree fell.
adverb - a word that modifies (changes) a verb, adjective, another adverb, or an entire sentence. Adverbs are often recognized by the suffix "-ly" at the end of the word, but there are also adverbs that don't have this ending.
For example, "cheerfully" is an adverb in the phrase "she smiled cheerfully". In the sentence "She ran quickly", the adverb "quickly" modifies the verb "ran".
clause - see this link for notes about clauses from ENG 10B!
direct object - a noun or noun phrase that receives the action of a verb from the subject of a sentence.
For example, "my debit card" is the direct object in the sentence "I found my debit card in the driver's seat of my car". Being found is an action that happens to the debit card, so it is the direct option in this statement.
indirect object - the word or phrase that receives the direct object.
In the sentence "The teacher gave the students cake", the indirect object is "the students". The direct object is cake, and the students are the ones who eat it.
main clause - also known as an independent clause. Please see "clause" above for more details!
noun - a word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea (examples: “John,” "river," “house,” “favorite").
object of a preposition - a noun or pronoun that comes after a preposition in a sentence and connects it to other elements in the sentence. A preposition tells you where the position of something is; that something would be the object of the preposition.
For example, in the sentence "He put the blankets on the bed," "on" is the preposition and "bed" is the object of the preposition.
subject - the person, place, thing, or idea that performs the action in the sentence; the focus of what or who the sentence is about.
subordinate clause - also known as a dependent clause. Please see "clause" above for more details!
verb - words that show an action (sing), occurrence (develop), or state of being (exist).
predicate nominative - a noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and identifies, describes, or redefines the subject.
For example, in the sentence “you are my best friend,” “you” is the subject and “my best friend” is the predicate nominative describing the subject.
Official definition: A noun clause is a dependent (or subordinate) clause that acts as a noun. Like any dependent clause, a noun clause has a subject and verb, but it cannot stand alone as a sentence. A noun clause may be used wherever a noun would be in a sentence.
Noun clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions or pronouns.
Breakdown: To put this a different way: a noun clause can be any part of a dependent clause (part of a sentence that does not form a complete sentence on its own) that gives us more information about a noun (person, place, thing or idea).
"Noun clause" is an umbrella that other sections of a sentence call into. The subject, predicate nominative, indirect object, direct object, and object of a preposition (again, see the above "Catch-Up!" section) can all be part of the noun clause.
Noun clauses tend to start with:
Subordinating conjunctions: that, how, when, where, whether, why
Pronouns: what, whatever, who, whom, whoever, whomever, which, whichever
Here are some examples of noun clauses in action, along with what kinds of noun clauses they can be:
subject: That she was upset about losing her purse is an understatement.
predicate nominative: Robert’s failure to keep the appointment is what frustrated his physician.
direct object: In biology class, we're studying how climate change affects animals in the Arctic.
indirect object: You should have given what your friend said both thought and consideration.
object of a preposition: Maya put on her headphones to avoid listening to what her mother was saying.
For Adverbial Clause basics, click to see these notes from ENG 9B!
Official definition: An adverbial clause is a dependent (subordinate) clause that modifies (changes) a verb, an adjective, or an adverb by telling where, why, how, when, or to what degree something is done.
Adverbial clauses are usually introduced by a subordinating conjunction that relates the clause to the word or words that it modifies.
Breakdown: To put this a different way: a adverbial clause can be any part of a dependent clause (part of a sentence that does not form a complete sentence on its own) that adds more information about where, why, how, or when a verb (action word), adjective (descriptive word), or adverb) happens or is done. There is a link between what's being changed and the detail being added.
"Adverbial clause" is an umbrella that other sections of a sentence call into if the verb, adjective, or adverb is changed or had more information added about it.
Adverbial clauses tend to start with:
Subordinating conjunctions: after, although, as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as though, because, before, even though, if, since, so that, than, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, while
Here are some examples of adverbial clauses in action (underlined), along with what verb, adjective or adverb they are changing (in italics):
modifying a verb: Julia left the bicycle where she found it.
modifying an adjective: Jeanette is taller than any other girl who plays on the basketball team.
modifying an adverb: Jan’s appointment with the dentist is later in the day than Debbie’s appointment is scheduled.
For Adverbial Clause basics, click to see these notes from ENG 9B!
In any persuasive text, a strong claim will likely include a developed counterargument. A counterargument is an argument that refutes or addresses any objections that someone with an opposing view is likely to raise against the claim. The counterpoints to these objections may be stated or implied.
Writers often begin by anticipating and respectfully acknowledging any opposing ideas. They then point out contradictions, concerns, or other problems with these ideas.
This refutation is meant to demonstrate that the writer’s main argument is based on well-informed and objective reasoning that effectively considers important concerns.
Counterarguments were especially common in literature from the age of reason. Many works from this time period dealt with people’s passionate opinions about the future of the colonies. Statesmen needed to persuade disapproving or hesitant colonists to support the American Revolution. The more support politicians gained from colleagues and other colonists, the greater the chances the revolution would succeed.
The Declaration of Independence is one prominent persuasive text from the Revolutionary era that demonstrates effective use of counterargument. Thomas Jefferson uses this persuasive technique to prove that his claims are not based on bias but rather on careful consideration of the condition of the colonies under British rule.
To get a refresher on bias, click here to read notes from ENG 10B!
Thomas Jefferson is regarded as one of the most influential Founding Fathers of the United States. Born on a Virginia farm, Jefferson enjoyed a life of affluence. After graduating from the College of William and Mary, he practiced law and then became a member of colonial Virginia’s legislature. Jefferson went on to serve the newly independent nation as the first secretary of state, the second vice president, and the third president.
Throughout his life, Jefferson was an avid reader who always sought to expand his knowledge. He explored a variety of subjects that were popular during the age of reason, including science and philosophy. He even taught himself architecture. He used this self-learned skill to found and design the University of Virginia, which reflected his beliefs in education.
The Continental Congress first met in Philadelphia in September 1774 to create a declaration of colonial rights. Its members reconvened in May 1775 when their demands were ignored by the British king and Parliament. Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson, among others, were chosen to draft the Declaration of Independence. The writing of the first draft fell to Jefferson.
The Declaration was revised numerous times. Changes included omitting a criticism of Britain for turning a blind eye to a corrupt Parliament. The final draft also omitted a strong declaration against slavery. These revisions disappointed Jefferson, even though his stance against slavery was contradicted by his ownership of slaves.
Charged words, or words that have strong emotional connotations, are used in many texts, especially persuasive works. By using charged words to describe an idea, authors hope that readers will have a strong emotional reaction to it.
For more information about the definition of words and connotations, see these notes from ENG 10B!
In the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson presents his claim in the preamble, or introduction. He states that it has become necessary for the American colonies to break away from British rule and that he will next provide reasons for this necessity. Jefferson supports this claim in the following section, or declaration.
The declaration affirms that in order for people to secure such rights as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, they must have an effectively run government. Should a government be unsuccessful in providing the people with their entitled rights, the people have just cause to abolish or alter it.
To further emphasize the severity of oppression in the American colonies and the need for separation from Britain, the Declaration uses several charged words. Examples include tyranny, duty, and injury. These words call repeated attention to the corruption of the king and Parliament. They appeal to the emotions of the audience through connotations of injustice and suffering. By using deliberate word choice, Jefferson hopes to rally others around the fight for independence—with no mention of the notion of freedom for the enslaved people and indentured servants in America.
Although the Declaration of Independence provided the arguments outlining the necessity to form a new government and nation, this document did not introduce any definite administrative or legal structures.
Ultimately, however, the delegates decided to create a new form of government, a federation under the Constitution of the United States.
After dissolving British rule, Americans had naturally feared a powerful central government, which explained why Congress created a confederation with a weak central government. However, there was clearly a need for a more powerful national government. The solution was a federation, which created a balance in power between the national and state governments. The Constitution divided the power of governance into three separate branches—legislative, executive, and judicial. The United States still abides by the Constitution, which shows its social and political significance.
The Constitution begins with a preamble that explains why the Constitution was adopted and how it adheres to the founding principles laid down in the Declaration of Independence.
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