Songwriters M.M. Keeravani and Chandrabose received the Oscar statuettes, but the success of "Naatu Naatu" had many authors, from the stars who danced to it in RRR (N.T. Rama Rao Jr. and Ram Charan) to the vocalists who performed it (Rahul Sipligunj and Kaala Bhairava) to the choreographer who helped make its video a viral sensation (Prem Rakshith). Unlike its fellow nominees for best original song, "Naatu Naatu" was central to the film from which it came; the song pops up an hour into RRR, soundtracking a fierce dance battle between the film's main characters and a group of stuffy British colonizers.
The Indian Ocean has an incredible diversity of blue whale acoustic populations6,7,8,9,10,11. Until very recently, there were four recognized blue whale populations from two subspecies: the Antarctic blue whale (B. m. intermedia), that is believed to produce the same song across the Southern Hemisphere; and three acoustic populations of the pygmy blue whale (B. m. brevicauda). The pygmy blue whale populations are distinguishable only acoustically; they do not display morphological differences and genetic data are sparse12. One population dwells in the southwestern Indian Ocean (SWIO) and is characterized by the Madagascan or type-9 song. A second population dwells in the southeastern Indian Ocean (SEIO) and is characterized by the Australian or type-8 song. Finally, a third population, and possibly a separate subspecies (B. m. indica), dwells in the northern and central Indian Ocean (NIO), and is characterized by the Sri Lankan or type-7 song5. Very recently, evidence for a fourth pygmy blue whale acoustic population were found in the northwestern Indian Ocean (NWIO) in the Arabian Sea off Oman, in the southwestern Indian Ocean off Madagascar, as well as in the central Indian Ocean on the west side of the Chagos Archipelago (DGN site, see below)13. Together with the Antarctic blue whales, all five of these blue whale populations are sympatric in the central Indian Ocean8,11,13.
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Long-term spectrogram of data recorded on the eastern side of the Chagos Archipelago (DGS site) in 2017: Chagos songs are a major component of the central Indian Ocean underwater soundscape and have been so for nearly two decades. The acoustic energy in the parallel horizontal frequency bands outlined in the black box are Chagos songs. Spectrogram parameters: 6 h averaging window, 50% overlap, FFT window of 120 s.
Study area and locations of the hydroacoustic stations (circles) used in this study to explore the presence of Chagos songs: in the equatorial waters, off Trincomalee, Sri Lanka; in the tropical waters: RAMA and the western (DGN) and eastern (DGS) sides of Chagos Archipelago; Kimberley, at the north of Western Australia, at the limit between the tropical and subtropical waters; and RTJ in the subtropical waters of the central Indian Ocean. Red circles indicate the sites where Chagos songs have been recorded.
Unit 2 was a pure tone following after a silence of 3.06 0.1 s. Its peak frequency was 22.34 0.05 Hz and its duration was 3.24 0.07 s. Finally, unit 3, also a pure tone, followed after a silence of 14.38 0.23 s. It had a peak frequency of 17.44 0.05 Hz and lasted 2.94 0.15 s. The third unit was sometimes absent. This could be due to a variation in the song or due to propagation losses. When unit 3 was present, the total song duration was 34.38 0.4 s.
The frequency for the beginning of the third subunit of the unit 1 of the Chagos song (point 1 in Fig. 3a) decreased by approximatively 0.33 Hz/year across years (Fig. 4).This phenomenon will be examined in details in a further study.
Spectrogram (a) and waveforms (b) of a Chagos song recorded on the eastern side of the Chagos Archipelago (DGS) in August 2017. Detailed waveforms show the signal structure of the units within the song. Spectrogram parameters: Hamming window, 1024-point FFT length, 90% overlap. Note that the axes differ among plots. (c) Measurements (mean standard error (s.e.)) of the acoustic features. N is the number of measurements, \(u_{i}su_{j}\) stands for \(unit_{i} subunit_{j}\) where i and j are the unit and subunit numbers, \(\Delta f\) designates the frequency difference between the sidebands, f and d are the frequency and duration of the feature indicated in subscript, and when present, the number in brackets refers to the point measured as indicated on the spectrogram. \(F_{x}\) or \(G_{x}\) designate the xth harmonic of a sound, and Cf designates the carrier frequency of a sound.
The decline in frequency of the Chagos song from 2002 to 2017: spectrogram representation of five songs recorded at Diego Garcia in years 2002, 2005, 2012, 2015 and 2017. Spectrogram parameters: Hamming window, 1024-point FFT length, 90% overlap.
This section describes the structural, temporal and frequency features of the pygmy blue whale song-types commonly reported in the Indian Ocean. Note that as the frequency of at least parts of these songs are known to vary within and across years36,37,38,39,40,41, the frequency values obtained here are only valid for the years sampled.
Unit 2 followed after 27.74 0.13 s. It had 2 subunits. Subunit 1 was a noisy pulsed sound, identified as deterministic chaos, it had a pulsed rate of \(\Delta f_ {u1su1}\) = 1.25 0.017 Hz, and a duration of 3.30 0.05 s. Subunit 2 was a complex harmonic-like signal, with sidebands spaced by \(\Delta f_ {u2su2}\) = 1.39 0.003 Hz. Calculations of the ratio of the sideband frequencies over \(\Delta f\) show that these 1.39 Hz-spaced bands do not have a harmonic relationship. However, relatively higher energy lies in frequency bands that have a harmonic relationship, where the band with the greatest energy started at 25.11 0.02 Hz and ended at 24.33 0.02 Hz (\(G_{3_{u2su2}}\) on Fig. 5). On the low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) songs, only the harmonic bands were visible, this explains why this unit has been described previously as a harmonic signal when it is not7. The complex structure of subunit 2 can be explained by a phenomenon of biphonation, where there are two concurrent frequencies, with a lower fundamental frequency (\(F_{0}\)) of 1.39 Hz, a higher fundamental frequency (\(G_{0}\)) of 8.37 Hz (resonance frequency \(G_{3}\) starting at 25.11 Hz), and the sidebands at m\(G_{0}\) n\(F_{0}\) consistent with the amplitude modulation of \(G_{0}\) by \(F_{0}\). This biphonation event lasted for 16.04 0.19 s. Finally, subunit 2 ended in a tonal sound with the harmonics (\(G_{0}\) = 7.94 Hz 0.003 Hz), that decreased in frequency from 24.30 0.02 Hz to 23.05 0.04 Hz over 4.88 0.11 s (measured for the harmonic where there is the greatest energy (\(G_{3_{u2su2}}\))). Unit 2 was 23.63 0.73 s in duration. The total duration of the Madagascan pygmy blue whale song was 68.68 0.34 s.
Unit 3 followed after 2.20 0.06 s of silence. It started as a non-tonal pulsed sound lasting 4.46 0.01 s, with a pulse rate \(\Delta f_{u3}\) = 3.29 0.12 Hz and a carrier frequency starting at 103.47 0.05 Hz and slightly decreasing to 102.91 0.03 Hz. It then continued as a pure tone starting at 102.63 0.05 Hz down to 102.41 0.04 Hz during 24.19 0.14 s and then suddenly peaked to 108.08 0.06 Hz. Unit 3 lasted 29.25 0.10 s in total, and the entire song was 84.76 0.16 s in duration.
Australian pygmy blue whale The Australian pygmy blue whale song is the most complex of the pygmy blue whale songs. It is traditionally described as a 3-unit signal, although multiple variations in the unit order (or syntax) are found42. The song variants change the order and repetition of the unit types. Here, for simplicity, we selected and thus described only the common traditional 3-unit song (Fig. 5c).
Unit 3 followed after 24.28 0.09 s of silence. It started as a tonal sound with harmonics spaced by 8.93 0.05 Hz. The resonance frequency (\(F_{1_{u3}}\)) started at 7.59 0.02 Hz then increased to 18.26 0.01 Hz over 3.76 0.05 s, with the appearance of sidebands with non-harmonic relationship, spaced by \(\Delta f_{u3}\) = 3.19 0.09 Hz. These non-tonal pulses stopped approximately 3.5 s before the end of the unit, which ends on the harmonic sound, slightly down swept to 18.05 0.02 Hz. These sidebands could be subharmonics, (\(F_{0}/3, 2F_{0}/3\), etc). Alternatively, they could suggest a biphonation sound. This third unit lasted 18.82 0.12 s in duration, and the whole 3-unit song was 123.54 0.29 s in duration.
Spectrograms (upper panels) and waveforms (middle panels) of the song of the Madagascan, Sri Lankan and Australian pygmy blue whales, including detailed waveforms to show the internal signal structure. The Madagascan song was recorded off Crozet Island (CTBTO records, site H04S1) in April 2004, the Sri Lankan song was recorded at DGN (CTBTO records, site H08N1) in April 2009 and the Australian song was recorded at Perth Canyon in March 2008 (IMOS records). (Spectrogram parameters: Hamming window, 1024-point FFT length, 90% overlap. Note that the axes differ among plots.) And measurements (mean s.e., lower panels) of the acoustic features of the different song types. N is the number of measurements, \(u_{i}su_{j}\) stands for \(unit_{i} subunit_{j}\) where i and j are the unit and subunit numbers, \(\Delta f\) designates the frequency difference between the sidebands, f and d are the frequency and duration of the feature indicated in subscript, and when present, the number in brackets refers to the point measured as indicated on the corresponding spectrogram. \(F_{x}\) or \(G_{x}\) designate the xth harmonic of a sound, and Cf designates the carrier frequency of a sound.
Based on the song example recorded in December 2015 in Nosy Be, Madagascar, and provided by S. Cerchio, we observed a 2-unit song (Fig. 6b). The first unit started as chaotic, with no visible sidebands. After \(\sim\) 3 s the signal had a bi- or triphonation event (whilst the deterministic chaos still continues), with first a tone at 40.04 Hz, another tone with a harmonic relationship at 20.02 Hz but starting circa 2.6 s later and a third one at 27.8 Hz starting 4.4 s after the beginning of the first tone, whilst the chaotic sound ends (the chaotic sound lasted circa 9.3 s). The tones of the bi- or triphonic sound all ended at the same time, 11.7 s after the beginning of the song. The second unit seems to be optional15,17,18,44. It followed after 2.8 s silence. It was a tonal sound of 4.9 s in duration with a peak frequency of 16.6 Hz. (Note that the observations here are purely qualitative since only based on 1 song). 0852c4b9a8
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