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Molecular Basis Of Inheritance Handwritten Notes Pdf Download
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Trait inheritance and molecular inheritance mechanisms of genes are still primary principles of genetics in the 21st century, but modern genetics has expanded to study the function and behavior of genes. Gene structure and function, variation, and distribution are studied within the context of the cell, the organism (e.g. dominance), and within the context of a population. Genetics has given rise to a number of subfields, including molecular genetics, epigenetics and population genetics. Organisms studied within the broad field span the domains of life (archaea, bacteria, and eukarya).
Prior to Mendel, Imre Festetics, a Hungarian noble, who lived in Kszeg before Mendel, was the first who used the word "genetic" in hereditarian context. He described several rules of biological inheritance in his works The genetic laws of the Nature (Die genetischen Gesetze der Natur, 1819).[10] His second law is the same as that which Mendel published.[11] In his third law, he developed the basic principles of mutation (he can be considered a forerunner of Hugo de Vries).[12] Festetics argued that changes observed in the generation of farm animals, plants, and humans are the result of scientific laws.[13] Festetics empirically deduced that organisms inherit their characteristics, not acquire them. He recognized recessive traits and inherent variation by postulating that traits of past generations could reappear later, and organisms could produce progeny with different attributes.[14] These observations represent an important prelude to Mendel's theory of particulate inheritance insofar as it features a transition of heredity from its status as myth to that of a scientific discipline, by providing a fundamental theoretical basis for genetics in the twentieth century.[10][15]
With the newfound molecular understanding of inheritance came an explosion of research.[37] A notable theory arose from Tomoko Ohta in 1973 with her amendment to the neutral theory of molecular evolution through publishing the nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution. In this theory, Ohta stressed the importance of natural selection and the environment to the rate at which genetic evolution occurs.[38] One important development was chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger. This technology allows scientists to read the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule.[39] In 1983, Kary Banks Mullis developed the polymerase chain reaction, providing a quick way to isolate and amplify a specific section of DNA from a mixture.[40] The efforts of the Human Genome Project, Department of Energy, NIH, and parallel private efforts by Celera Genomics led to the sequencing of the human genome in 2003.[41][42]
The molecular basis for genes is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is composed of deoxyribose (sugar molecule), a phosphate group, and a base (amine group). There are four types of bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). The phosphates make hydrogen bonds with the sugars to make long phosphate-sugar backbones. Bases specifically pair together (T&A, C&G) between two backbones and make like rungs on a ladder. The bases, phosphates, and sugars together make a nucleotide that connects to make long chains of DNA.[55] Genetic information exists in the sequence of these nucleotides, and genes exist as stretches of sequence along the DNA chain.[56] These chains coil into a double a-helix structure and wrap around proteins called Histones which provide the structural support. DNA wrapped around these histones are called chromosomes.[57] Viruses sometimes use the similar molecule RNA instead of DNA as their genetic material.[58]
DNA normally exists as a double-stranded molecule, coiled into the shape of a double helix. Each nucleotide in DNA preferentially pairs with its partner nucleotide on the opposite strand: A pairs with T, and C pairs with G. Thus, in its two-stranded form, each strand effectively contains all necessary information, redundant with its partner strand. This structure of DNA is the physical basis for inheritance: DNA replication duplicates the genetic information by splitting the strands and using each strand as a template for synthesis of a new partner strand.[59]
Within eukaryotes, there exist structural features of chromatin that influence the transcription of genes, often in the form of modifications to DNA and chromatin that are stably inherited by daughter cells.[84] These features are called "epigenetic" because they exist "on top" of the DNA sequence and retain inheritance from one cell generation to the next. Because of epigenetic features, different cell types grown within the same medium can retain very different properties. Although epigenetic features are generally dynamic over the course of development, some, like the phenomenon of paramutation, have multigenerational inheritance and exist as rare exceptions to the general rule of DNA as the basis for inheritance.[85]
Genes can undergo heritable modifications that alter gene expression without altering genetic information. Such modifications are known as epigenetic modifications, and are heritable through cell division (mitotic inheritance) or from parents to progeny (meiotic inheritance). Epigenetic modifications can be influenced by multiple biological and environmental factors, thus providing an added layer to the relationship between genotype and phenotype. Understanding how this layer of regulation works is becoming an important aspect of molecular genetics. In this course, we will cover basic concepts in epigenetics and discuss various epigenetic processes such as DNA methylation, chromatin remodeling, gene imprinting, post-translational histone modification, epigenomics, environmental epigenetics and the relationship between epigenetic modification and human health. Three hours of lecture per week plus one fourth hour per week.
Genes can undergo heritable modifications that alter gene expression without altering genetic information. Such modifications are known as epigenetic modifications, and are heritable through cell division (mitotic inheritance) or from parents to progeny (meiotic inheritance). Epigenetic modifications can be influenced by multiple biological and environmental factors, thus providing an added layer to the relationship between genotype and phenotype. Understanding how this layer of regulation works is becoming an important aspect of molecular genetics. In this course, we will cover basic concepts in epigenetics and discuss various epigenetic processes such as DNA methylation, chromatin remodeling, gene imprinting, post-translational histone modification, epigenomics, environmental epigenetics and the relationship between epigenetic modification and human health.The laboratory component will focus on understanding the epigenetics concepts discussed in lecture by conducting a project that will involve analyzing DNA modification and chromatin remodeling in epigenetic mutants using biochemical and molecular genetic techniques. Students will take charge of data interpretation and analysis.
An introduction to the molecular and cellular processes common to life with an emphasis on control of energy and information flow. Central themes include metabolism, macromolecular function, and the genetic basis of cellular function. We examine how membranes work to establish the internal composition of cells; how the structure of proteins including enzymes affects protein function; how energy is captured, stored and utilized by cells; and how cells communicate, move and divide. We explore inheritance patterns and underlying molecular mechanisms of genetics, the central dogma of information transfer from DNA replication to protein synthesis, and recombinant DNA methods and medical applications. Laboratories include genetic analyses, enzyme reaction kinetics, membrane transport, and genomic analysis. Two hours of lecture, two hours of team-based learning, and three laboratory hours per week. ff782bc1db