Unit 3

land based empires reading.pdf 

During the period from 1450 to 1750, several powerful land-based empires emerged and expanded their territories through military might and technological advancement. The strategic use of gunpowder and cannons, combined with armed trade, enabled empires like the Manchu in Central and East Asia, the Mughal in South and Central Asia, the Ottoman in Southern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa, and the Safavids in the Middle East to establish vast territorial control. These empires developed sophisticated administrative systems and military organizations that allowed them to maintain power over diverse populations and extensive geographical areas.

The expansion of these empires wasn't without challenges, as state rivalries and conflicts emerged due to competing territorial ambitions and religious differences. For example, the Safavid-Mughal conflict demonstrated how political and religious disputes could lead to intense military confrontations between neighboring empires. Similarly, the Songhai Empire's conflict with Morocco highlighted how competition for resources and trade routes could spark international warfare. These empires maintained their authority through a combination of military strength, administrative efficiency, and the ability to manage diverse populations while adapting to changing political and economic circumstances of the early modern world.

From 1450 to 1750, rulers of land-based empires employed various sophisticated methods to establish and maintain their authority. The devshirme system, practiced by the Ottoman Empire, was a recruitment process where Christian boys from conquered territories were taken, converted to Islam, and trained to serve in the military or civil administration. This system created a loyal class of administrators directly dependent on the sultan. Similarly, rulers invoked the concept of divine right, which asserted that their authority came directly from God, making resistance to their rule equivalent to opposing divine will. This belief was particularly strong among European monarchs like Louis XIV of France, who famously declared himself the "Sun King."

Rulers also strengthened their legitimacy through innovative financial systems and cultural displays of power. They implemented complex tax-collection systems like the Mughal zamindar system, where local landlords collected taxes from peasants, and the Ottoman practice of tax farming, where individuals purchased the right to collect taxes in specific regions. To demonstrate their authority visually, rulers commissioned grand architectural projects and art, such as the Palace of Versailles in France and imperial portraits of the Qing dynasty. Religious patronage was equally important - the Songhai Empire actively promoted Islam, while the Mexica (Aztec) Empire maintained power partly through religious ceremonies including human sacrifice. These various methods of legitimizing power - bureaucratic, religious, artistic, and financial - worked together to create sophisticated systems of imperial control.

During the period from 1450 to 1750, major religious transformations and divisions emerged across different belief systems. The Protestant Reformation, led by reformers like Martin Luther, marked a significant break from traditional Christian practices and the Catholic Church. Both Protestant and Catholic reform movements ultimately contributed to the expansion of Christianity worldwide through missionary work and colonization. Meanwhile, in the Islamic world, political tensions between the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Empire deepened the existing division between Sunni Islam (followed by the Ottomans) and Shi'a Islam (practiced by the Safavids). The key difference between these two branches of Islam centered on leadership succession after Prophet Muhammad's death - Sunnis believed leadership should be chosen by consensus, while Shi'as believed leadership should follow Muhammad's family line through Ali, his cousin and son-in-law.

In South Asia, a new religion called Sikhism emerged during this period, founded by Guru Nanak Dev Ji. Sikhism developed in an environment where Hinduism and Islam were the dominant religions, incorporating elements that reflected this unique cultural context while establishing its own distinct identity and beliefs. This religion emphasized equality among all people, rejection of the caste system, and devotion to one formless God. The development of these religious movements and divisions during this period demonstrates how belief systems both shaped and were shaped by political, social, and cultural forces, leading to lasting impacts that continue to influence global society today.