Twins are extremely rare among many primates such as Old World monkeys, because each baby takes a lot of time, energy, and food to rear. Thus, scientists were pleasantly surprised to record the first instance of twins born to a wild group of stump-tailed macaques, in a hilly, forested area in central Thailand.

Despite sharing a womb, the twins have different fathers, researchers discovered after performing paternity tests on the monkeys. The odd case is described in a paper published this September in the journal Mammal Study.

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Unlike their dark brown parents, infant stump-tailed macaques (Macaca arctoides) have pale faces and fur, bright spots amid the browns and greens of the forest. There are nearly 400 monkeys in this Thai population, and Toyoda spent 21 months studying the creatures. He saw 114 births in that time, and only one set of twins.

In humans (Homo sapiens), having young twins sometimes has a deleterious effect on the emotional well-being of mothers. Thorpe, Golding, MacGillivray and Greenwood1 showed that mothers of twins at 5 years had significantly higher malaise scores, indicative of depression, than did mothers of singletons at the same age. Maternal depression is at least in part caused by the heavier burden of parenting on mothers of twins than on mothers of singletons2,3. This occasionally results in maltreatment of twins4. Diminishing the parental stress of the mothers of twins might require the involvement of alloparents who share the burden of parenting with mothers such as fathers, extended families and community members5.

Chimpanzees (Pantroglodytes), the closest relatives of humans, normally give birth to one infant at a time; however, they also give birth to twins, albeit infrequently. According to the data from the International Species Information System (ISIS), one of 59 captive births was multiple6. Some cases of twin births have also been reported in the wild. For example, Matsumoto-Oda7 reported a case of twin birth among the chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountain National Park, Tanzania. Additionally, Goodall8 reported a case of twin birth in the Gombe National Park, Tanzania. However, in both these cases, the twins were unable to reach adulthood, as one or both the twins died within few years7,8. Even among captives, 64% of individuals born as twins die by the end of the first year of their birth, whereas only 23% of singletons pass away during the first year of life6.

One of the difficulties in rearing infant twins among chimpanzee mothers might have been the absence of alloparents. This idea is supported by the single case of successfully raised chimpanzee twins in the wild at Gombe. The mother, Gremlin, gave birth to female twins (Golden and Glitter) in 19989. The twins are still alive and surviving well into adulthood10. The Jane Goodall Institute10 has introduced video episodes indicating that the twins were often taken care of by their older sister Gaia. These episodes suggested that alloparenting by Gaia reduced the parental burden on Gremlin and thus allowed for the successful rearing of the twins. Although reports from the Jane Goodall Institute supported the idea that chimpanzee mothers can rear twins if alloparents are available, quantitative data remain sparse. In particular, no research has indicated who is more suitable to become a chimpanzee alloparent or the types of care responsibilities assumed by alloparents.

In April 2009, a female chimpanzee named Sango living in the captive group at the Noichi Zoological Park of Kochi Prefecture, Japan, gave birth to dizygotic male-female twins (male: Daiya, female: Sakura; Figure 1). To date, the twins have been successfully reared by their mother. To investigate the hypothesis that alloparents are necessary for twin rearing, we observed the chimpanzee group at Noichi when the twins were two years old. In general, the third year of life in chimpanzees is the middle of infancy in their life cycle and they still depend on their mothers in diverse ways. For example, infant chimpanzees still depend on their mothers for transport by riding on their mothers when they travel8,11. In other words, to ensure their infants' survival, chimpanzee mothers must take care of them. We investigated whether and how adult group members (besides the mother) cared for the twins. Additionally, we explored the causes of alloparenting among chimpanzees, focusing on two primary factors, namely, the individuals that were most likely to become alloparents and the external triggers for alloparenting behavior.

To determine the effects of the social relationships of the twins with Sango on the parental behavior by focal adults other than Sango, we conducted correlation analyses on proximity rate between twins and focal adults, Sango and focal adults and the occurrence rate of alloparental behavior by focal adults.

To determine whether Sango was equally close to each of her twins, we compared the numbers of proximity and non-proximity scans with Sango and each of Daiya and Sakura by using a chi-squared test. Daiya was close to Sango at a significantly higher rate than was Sakura (Figure 7; 2(1) = 5.59, n = 764, p < 0.018).

Twin rearing is rare in chimpanzees and thus, very few studies have investigated how twin chimpanzees are reared in their communities. To our knowledge, this is the first study to provide quantitative data on parenting behaviors by a mother chimpanzee and adult group members toward infant twins.

Rearing twins would be difficult for chimpanzees because of the heavier parenting burden on mothers. In fact, reports of successful twin rearing by chimpanzees are scarce. We hypothesized that alloparents, who share the burden of parenting, would be necessary for successful rearing of twins.

In conclusion, this is the first study suggesting that alloparenting from adults other than mothers would contribute to the successful rearing of twins in captive chimpanzees. We also suggested that infants' departing from mothers and gesturing their own requests would make non-kin adults provide care for the infants. Our results provide some insight into why humans give birth in short calving intervals and how institutions of human alloparenting (e.g., nursery school) originated.

Daiya, the male infant and Sakura, the female infant, were the two-year-old twins. They were born on April 18, 2009, to Sango, a 35-year-old wild-born female. The father of the twins was Robin, a 15-year-old captive-born male. The birth of the twins was natural and there are not any human interventions.

According to the breeding record published on the website of Noichi Zoological Park of Kochi Prefecture27, Sango and twins appeared in the outdoor enclosure for the first time on April 27, 2009. After that, other adult group members sometimes touched the twins in Sango's arms. From around December 2009, after the twins were 8 months old, Koyuki, Robin and Cherry were sometimes observed holding the twins in their arms. According to Ichino28 who investigated the social relationship of this captive social group of chimpanzees, when the twins were aged between 18 and 23 months, Daiya spent significant amounts of time with Sango, Sakura and Robin, while Sakura spent much time with Sango, Daiya and Cherry.

Monchhichi (, Monchitchi) is a line of Japanese stuffed monkey toys from the Sekiguchi Corporation, first released in 1974. They were licensed by Mattel in the United States until 1985, and later distributed worldwide directly by Sekiguchi. Four television series were produced based on the characters: The Japanese anime series Monchhichi Twins (, Futago no Monchhichi) in 1980, produced by Tokyo 12 Channel (now TV Tokyo), the American cartoon series Monchhichis in 1983, produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions, the French cartoon series Kiki, le Kiki de tous les Kiki in 2001, produced by Ben-J Productions, the Japanese stop-motion series Monchhichi (, Monchhichi) in 2005, by Kids Station and the French CGI series Monchhichi Tribe (La Tribu Monchhichi) in 2017, produced by Technicolor Animation Productions.[1]

The Monchhichi franchise is held by the Sekiguchi Corporation, a famous doll company, located in Tokyo, Japan. Monchhichi was created by Yoshiharu Washino ( ( )) on January 25, 1974, as an improvement to the already successful Kuta Kuta Monkey () (Exhausted monkey).Sekiguchi claims they created these characters in order to inspire respect and love in the young (Japanese) children and adults, their name is derived from the words "Mon" which translates to "Mine" in French and "Chichi" which closely resembles the sound a child's pacifier would produce according to Japanese phonetics, also the resulting word has a similar sound to the word "Monkey" in English.

Total prevalence per 100,000 births (bar) and 95% confidence interval (line) by Surveillance Programs of conjoined twins in 21 Surveillance Programs of the International Clearinghouse for Birth Defects Surveillance and Research (ICBDSR).

Beppina followed close behind, and the two worked their way under the elbows of the grown people until they reached the very centre, where they were thrilled to find a dark, swarthy man, holding a bear by a rope. The bear was dancing clumsily on his hind legs, and near by a woman with black eyes and hair and great rings in her ears was grinding an organ. On top of the organ sat a monkey in a red cap shaking a tambourine. Behind the group stood a yellow van, drawn by two donkeys gayly tricked out with scarlet nets and jingling bells.

They were awakened next morning by the chattering of the monkey, and, looking out from their corner, they could not for a moment remember where they were, or how they came to be there. The sun was shining brightly, the birds were singing, and Carlotta was up and stirring something in a pot over the fire. Luigi had gone with the donkeys to give them a drink, and Ugolone was standing on his hind legs beside his tree, grunting impatiently for his breakfast. be457b7860

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