Serena Williams opened up about the harrowing medical ordeal she experienced after giving birth to her first child, saying that meeting her daughter for the first time was \"an amazing feeling,\" but then \"everything went bad.\"

Her medical ordeal took another turn when her c-section wound popped open during one of her coughing spells caused by the pulmonary embolism. When she returned to surgery, doctors also found a hematoma had flooded her abdomen.

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The first of these books is the subject of this post, Geschichte der Ordialien, insbesondere der gerichtlichen Zweikmpfe in Deutschland (Jena, 1795), (or, The History of Ordeals, especially Judicial Combat in Germany). In that book, Majer details the history of a variety of forms of judicial ordeals that were practiced in German-speaking lands from Late Antiquity, the earliest period for which there is any textual documentation of legal practices in those regions, until the 18th century. From a bibliographic point of view, the essays in the book are invaluable, because Majer takes the time to include, for each form of ordeal, a list of the scholarship that was available in print in his day. These range from treatises to dissertations to pamphlets that were printed over the course of more than three centuries, all collecting data about the various judicial ordeals practiced throughout medieval Germany.

Majer discusses a wide range of ordeals, all of which were held to render a verdict according to the judgment of God. Among them is the ordeal of cold water, which is discussed in detail here. The ordeal of hot water also makes an appearance, in which the accused plunges his arm down to the elbow in a vessel of boiling water, often to retrieve a stone from the bottom of the vessel. A burnt arm indicates the guilt of the accused. (Majer, p. 38.) Majer discusses the fire test, which is the burning of the hand of the accused with a hot iron. If the wound becomes septic, the accused is held to be guilty. (Majer, p. 47.) He also describes three distinctly religious ordeals. One is the cross test, which takes several forms, some of which amount to making an oath before a cross or merely making an oath and waiting for a sign from God. Another version involves standing on a cross and holding the arms out in a cross shape for the duration of the recitation of a Mass. If the accused allows the arm to fall even slightly, this is a sign of guilt. (Majer, p. 58.) He discusses the purgatio per sacram Eucharistam (the test of the holy Eucharist), in which the accused is adjured to confess, and is then given a communion wafer to eat. If the wafer becomes stuck in his throat, the accused was guilty. (Majer, p. 71.) This test is substantially similar to the test of the consecrated bread, in which a piece of bread is offered to the accused in near identical proceedings. (Majer, p. 67.) The most gruesome of the tests mentioned is the ordeal of the coffin, in which a person accused of murder is brought before the corpse of the victim; in some cases, the accused is asked to touch the corpse. If the corpse bleeds in the presence of the accused, he is held to be guilty. (Majer, p. 81.) For each of these, he cites early appearances in Germanic law and instances of their use in historical sources.

Trial by ordeal was an ancient judicial practice by which the guilt or innocence of the accused was determined by subjecting them to a painful, or at least an unpleasant, usually dangerous experience. In medieval Europe, like trial by combat, trial by ordeal, such as cruentation, was sometimes considered a "judgement of God" (Latin: jdicium De, Old English: Godes dm): a procedure based on the premise that God would help the innocent by performing a miracle on their behalf. The practice has much earlier roots, attested to as far back as the Code of Hammurabi and the Code of Ur-Nammu.

In pre-modern society, the ordeal typically ranked along with the oath and witness accounts as the central means by which to reach a judicial verdict. Indeed, the term ordeal, Old English ordl, has the meaning of "judgment, verdict" (German Urteil, Dutch oordeel), from Proto-Germanic *uzdailij "that which is dealt out".

Priestly cooperation in trials by fire and water was forbidden by Pope Innocent III at the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 and replaced by compurgation. Trials by ordeal became rarer over the Late Middle Ages, but the practice was not discontinued until the 16th century. Certain trials by ordeal would continue to be used into the 17th century in witch-hunts.[1]

During the First Crusade, the French mystic Peter Bartholomew allegedly went through the ordeal by fire in 1099 by his own choice to disprove a charge that his claimed discovery of the Holy Lance was fraudulent. He died as a result of his injuries.[2]

Trial by ordeal was adopted in the 13th century by the Byzantine successor states the Empire of Nicaea and the Despotate of Epirus; Michael Angold speculates this legal innovation was most likely through "the numerous western mercenaries in Byzantine service both before and after 1204."[3] It was used to prove the innocence of the accused in cases of treason and use of magic to affect the health of the emperor. The most famous case where this was employed was when Michael Palaiologos was accused of treason: he avoided enduring the red-iron by saying he would only hold it if the Metropolitan Phokas of Philadelphia could take the iron from the altar with his own hands and hand it to him.[4] However, the Byzantines viewed trial by ordeal with disgust and considered it a barbarian innovation at odds with Byzantine law and ecclesiastical canons. Angold notes, "Its abolition by Michael Palaiologos was universally acclaimed."[5]

Ordeal by fire (Persian:tag_hash_108 ) was also used for judiciary purposes in ancient Iran. Persons accused of cheating in contracts or lying might be asked to prove their innocence by ordeal of fire as an ultimate test. Two examples of such an ordeal include the accused having to pass through fire, or having molten metal poured on their chest. There were about 30 of these kinds of fiery tests in all. If the accused died, they were held to have been guilty; if survived, they were innocent, having been protected by Mithra and the other gods. The most simple form of such ordeals required the accused to take an oath, then drink a potion of sulfur (Avestan language saokant, Middle Persian sgand, Modern Persian sowgand). It was believed that fire had an association with truth, and hence with asha.[6]

First mentioned in the 6th-century Lex Salica, the ordeal of hot water required the accused to dip their hand into a kettle or pot of boiling water (sometimes oil or lead was used instead) and retrieve a stone. Assessment of the injury was similar to that for the fire ordeal. An early (non-judicial) example of the test was described by Bishop Gregory of Tours in the late 6th century. He describes how a Catholic saint, Hyacinth,[clarification needed] bested an Arian rival by plucking a stone from a boiling cauldron. Gregory said that it took Hyacinth about an hour to complete the task (because the waters were bubbling so ferociously), but he was pleased to record that when the heretic tried, he had the skin boiled off up to his elbow.

The ordeal of cold water has a precedent in the 13th law of the Code of Ur-Nammu[16] (the oldest known surviving code of laws) and the second law of the Code of Hammurabi.[17] Under the Code of Ur-Nammu, a man who was accused of what some scholars have translated as "sorcery" was to undergo ordeal by water. If the man were proven innocent through this ordeal, the accuser was obligated to pay three shekels to the man who underwent judgment.[16] The Code of Hammurabi dictated that, if a man was accused of a matter by another, the accused was to leap into a river. If the accused man survived this ordeal, the accused was to be acquitted. If the accused was found innocent by this ordeal, the accuser was to be put to death and the accused man was to take possession of the then-deceased accuser's house.[17]

Ordeal by water was associated with the witch-hunts of the 16th and 17th centuries, although an inverse of most trials by ordeal; if the accused sank, they were considered innocent, whereas if they floated, this indicated witchcraft. The ordeal would be conducted with a rope holding the subject so that the person being tested could be retrieved following the trial. A witch trial including this ordeal took place in Szeged, Hungary as late as 1728.[19]

The ordeal of the cross was apparently introduced in the Early Middle Ages in an attempt to discourage judicial duels among Germanic peoples. As with judicial duels, and unlike most other ordeals, the accuser had to undergo the ordeal together with the accused. They stood on either side of a cross and stretched out their hands horizontally. The first one to lower their arms lost. This ordeal was prescribed by Charlemagne in 779 and again in 806. A capitulary of Louis the Pious in 819[21] and a decree of Lothar I, recorded in 876, abolished the ordeal so as to avoid the mockery of Christ.

Franconian law prescribed that an accused was to be given dry bread and cheese blessed by a priest. If the accused choked on the food, they were considered guilty. This was transformed into the ordeal of the Eucharist (trial by sacrament) mentioned by Regino of Prm ca. 900:AD; the accused was to take the oath of innocence. It was believed that if the oath had been false, the person would die within the same year.

Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes, including theft, Christianity, and especially witchcraft, for which the ordeal of tangena was routinely obligatory. In the 1820s, ingestion of the poisonous nut caused about 1,000 deaths annually. This average rose to around 3,000 annual deaths between 1828 and 1861.[25] be457b7860

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