In the 21st century, it is not uncommon to encounter people with ties to more than one religion. Some examples of such multiple or dual religious ties (referred to as “multi-religiosity” for the purposes of this paper) include the practice of Buddhism among Christians and Jews, regular church attendance among those who say they are not religious, and the children of mixed religious couples who might be raised with some level of identification with the spiritual traditions of both parents. Yet, literature and data on the topic of multi-religiosity is scarce. Through an analysis of qualitative data gathered by the author in Brazil in 2007–2008 and data from a poll conducted by the Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion and Public Life in the United States in 2009, this paper aims to draw attention to the prevalence of dual or multiple religious ties in 21st-century Western countries, and to encourage a reconsideration of traditional concepts and categories in scholarly approaches to studying religion.
Key words: multi-religiosity, religious pluralism, dual religious belonging, religious superdiversity, sociology of religion
This study seeks to understand how young, unmarried mothers and mothers-to-be in the favelas (shantytowns) of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, have experienced religious morality as applied to themselves and other adolescents in their communities, as well as how religious leaders grapple with the moral issue of unmarried adolescent maternity in their midst. Drawing on more than 50 interviews conducted in Rio with young mothers, Catholic and evangelical religious leaders who work with the poor, and staff members of non-governmental organizations, this paper seeks to understand the acceptance—or even approval—that unmarried pregnant teens and adolescent mothers usually encounter, which casts doubt on whether the issue is actually posing a moral dilemma for these religious institutions. The realities of everyday life in Rio’s favelas, most prominently the ever-present specter of violence, high rates of teen motherhood, strong popular opposition to abortion, the high value accorded to motherhood, and the intense competition of the religious marketplace appear to influence the ways in which favela residents and religious leaders understand and interpret morality. More generally, this study offers an example of how religious groups working in impoverished communities throughout the world might adapt traditional moral codes to suit their circumstances.
Key words: adolescents/youth; Brazil; Pentecostalism; sexual behavior; morality; ethnography.
While there is a large literature on attitudes towards immigrants, scholars have not systematically examined the determinants of attitudes towards refugees. Often, refugees are simply treated as a subset of immigrants, under the assumption that attitudes towards both sets of foreigners are similar. In contrast, we argue that immigrants are viewed primarily as economic competitors while refugees are seen as political actors. Attitudes towards refugees are shaped by political concerns related to ethnic identity (ethnic fractionalization and anti-Muslim prejudice) and national security (incidents of terrorism). Meanwhile, as other studies have shown, attitudes towards immigrants are driven by economic concerns related to income and occupation. We test these hypotheses using individual-level data from 16 countries in the 2002 and 2014 waves of the European Social Survey. By distinguishing between refugees and immigrants, this paper addresses an important gap in the academic literature on attitudes towards foreigners in Europe.
Key words: attitudes, public opinion, refugees, immigrants, Europe, Muslim minority
China rarely evokes images of radical Islam, bus bombings and mosque razings. Yet all of these elements have had a distinct impact on life in China’s north-western province, Xinjiang. While the Chinese government has emphasized Islamic extremism and acts of terror to convince international actors that it is confronted with an international terrorist movement, human rights organizations have pointed out the high level of dissatisfaction pervasive among Xinjiang’s Uighur population. The desperation among Uighurs in Xinjiang has spawned a significant terrorist movement. Were the numerous grievances of the Uighurs addressed by Beijing, the movement would lose its limited popular support, which is currently on the rise.
Key words: Xinjiang, China, terrorism, political violence, Muslim minority