Anatomy & Physiology 1

Background: In this lab, we refer to the regions of the body and directions using specific terms. You need to memorize these terms as soon as possible to learn more about bones, muscles, etc.

The body is always referred to in a prone position called the anatomical position. Our bodies are made of different cavities and multiple regions.

The figure(s) and videos(s) from this chapter summarize the most critical positions, regions, cavities, and directions you need to learn for this course.

Background: The cell is often referred to as the unit of life. All cells are made of organelles. Think of these organelles as small organs within the cell to ensure different functions so each cell can do what they need to (e.g., contraction, absorption, secretion, etc.).

Most of our cells undergo mitosis division to replenish new cells, grow, repair injuries, etc. When not in mitosis, cells are in interphase, where they get ready for the next division and ensure all the functions the cell needs to do. 

Use the figure(s) and video(s) from this chapter to familiarize yourself with the organelles' names and the cell cycle's sub-phases. Use all the models in the lab (including microscope slides) to learn everything you need from this chapter.

Background: Cells will organize each other into tissue. Cells come in different shapes and forms (e.g., squamous, cuboidal, etc.) They will be organized differently (simple, stratified, etc.).

 All the tissues from our body can be classified into four groups: muscular, nervous, epithelial, and connective. Each group contains different subgroups (e.g., cardiac, smooth, skeletal). 

Use the figure(s) and videos(s) from this chapter to help you remember the major group of tissues that forms our body. Make sure to look at all the tissues using the microscopy slides in this lab. Take plenty of notes of what you see.

Background: The skin (epidermis and dermis), several accessory organs such as sensory receptors (e.g., Pacinian corpuscles), eccrine/apocrine glands (aka sweat glands), sebaceous glands, and nails form the integumentary system.

The functions of this system are numerous. It includes protection, body temperature sensory information, vitamin D synthesis, and many more. The integumentary system is the most extensive in our body.

Use the figure(s) and video(s) from this chapter and the models in this lab to recognize as many structures as possible, and don't forget to study their functions.

Background: The skeleton system is made of 206 bones. They come in different sizes (e.g., long, short, irregular, sesamoid) and shapes (e.g., fossa, foramen, condyle, trochanter meatus, etc.) 

Bones have several functions, such as supporting the body, protecting organs, and storing mineral and blood cells.

The skeleton system is divided into two major groups: the axial (80 bones) and the appendicular skeletons (126 bones).

The axial skeleton consists of the ribs, sternum, vertebrae (i.e., cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, and coccyx), and skulls. 

You can use the figure(s) and video(s) from this chapter to learn more about the structures and names of the axial skeleton's bones.

Background: The second major group of bones in our body, besides the axial skeleton, is the appendicular skeleton. This group consists of the bones of the arms and hands (e.g., humerus, ulna, carpals), legs and feet (e.g., femur, tibia, talus), pelvic girdle (e.g., ilium, ischium), and pectoral girdle (e.g., scapula, clavicle).

This appendicular skeleton is made of 126 bones. And these bones are no exceptions. They are made of several structures you will need to learn (e.g., condyles, spines, fossa, processes).

Use the figure(s) and videos(s) from this chapter to learn all these bones and their major structures.

Background: One of the main functions of our bones is to support our body and allows us to move around. Bones with several other connective tissues (e.g., ligaments, cartilages, etc.) form joints, aka articulations. These articulations are the place of contact between bones and cartilage.

There are three groups of joints based on their range of movements and the composition of their connective tissues. These three types of articulations are synarthroses (fibrous) (e.g., parietal suture), amphiarthroses (cartilaginous) (e.g., zygapophysial joints), and diathroses (synovial) (e.g., elbow joint). 

There are six categories of synovial joints (e.g., saddle, pivot, etc.) that allow different movements, such as pronation, adduction, circumduction, etc.

Using the figure(s), video(s) from this chapter, and the models in this lab, learn the different groups of joints, the ligaments of the knee, and the different movements of our bodies.

Background: The human body comprises plus or less 650 different muscles. The mass of muscles can represent up to 90% of your body. Each muscle is made of muscle cells, also known as muscle fibers. These cells are highly specialized to allow them to contract. Most muscle fibers are made of myofibrils, consisting of an association of sarcomeres made of myofilaments (thick and thin).

There are three groups of muscles: skeletal (e.g., gastrocnemius), cardiac (e.g., myocardium), and smooth (e.g., arrector pili). The last two groups contract involuntarily when the skeletal muscles contract at will. Regardless of their group, muscles are under the nervous system's control. Muscles and the nervous system communicate via the neuromuscular junction.

Muscles are, for instance, responsible for the movement of the food in your gastrointestinal tract, expelling waste products, vasodilatation, and vasoconstriction, pumping blood throughout the body, moving the body, posture, producing heat, etc.

Different connective tissues are associated with muscle, such as epimysium, perimysium, endomysium, tendon, and aponeurosis. Muscle fibers are connected to the nervous system via neuromuscular junctions.

Using the figure(s), video(s) from this chapter, and the lab models, learn more about the muscles' physiology and functions. Make sure to look at the muscle microscope slides.

Background: The human body is made of around 650 muscles. Their names depend on many factors: shape, location, size, fiber direction, actions, number of insertions, origin, and insertion. You will only need to learn the most important muscles for this chapter. To help you remember the name of the muscles you will need to learn for this chapter, try to figure out what factor(s) was used to name a muscle. Be careful sometimes more than one factor can be used to name a muscle.

Using the figure(s) and videos(s) from this chapter, plus the lab models, learn more about the names of several muscles you need to remember for this course.

Background: The nervous system is made of neurons (e.g., multipolar, bipolar, unipolar) to carry the information and neuroglia cells (e.g., microglial cells) to support neurons’ functions.

The nervous system is made of two parts: the central nervous system (CNS) (i.e., brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) (i.e., spinal and cranial nerves). The peripheral system is divided into the afferent or sensory (toward the CNS) (somatic and visceral sensory divisions) and efferent or motor (outward the CNS) divisions. The efferent pathways are made of the somatic (to control the skeletal muscles) and autonomic nervous systems (ANS) (to control smooth and cardiac muscles). The ANS controls everything we cannot voluntarily control, such as activating glands to release hormones. The ANS consists of the sympathetic (fight and fly) and the parasympathetic divisions (rest).

Learn more about the nervous system using the figure(s) and videos(s) from this chapter and the lab models.

Background: The central nervous system is very complex. It is made of the brain and the spinal cord. 

The brain consists of different parts cerebrum (80 percent of the brain structure), diencephalon (i.e., thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus), cerebellum, and brainstem (i.e., midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata), all essential for a pleiad of the body functions. The brain is protected by different structures, such as bones, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and the meninges. 

Finally, 12 pairs of cranial nerves emerge from the brain and are involved in the function of most of the parts of our body (e.g., eyes, nose, internal organs, etc.). Using the figure(s), video(s) from this chapter, and all the lab models, learn more about the brain structure and cranial nerve functions.

Background: We use different organs to sense our environment. These senses include vision, taste (i.e., gustation), smell (i.e., olfaction), hearing, and balance (equilibrium). We use our eyes to see, our ears to hear, our tongue to taste, and our internal ears to find balance. 

These organs are complex and involve receptors like photoreceptors (e.g., eye), mechanoreceptors (e.g., internal ear), and chemoreceptors (e.g., tongue).

Use the figure(s) and video(s) from this chapter and the different models in the lab to memorize the other parts of different organs involved in perceiving our environment.