Grammar

Grammar links

Review Level 2 & Level 3

Level 2 Grammar Site Level 3 Grammar Site

HCT Grammar for EmSAT 1100

General websites for practising grammar

English Grammar at the British Council

Englisch-Hilfen.de

English Grammar 101

DuoLingo

ExamEnglish.com - B1 Grammar

ExamEnglish.com - B2 Grammar

English Grammar Online

5 Minute English

Grammarly - for writing

Perfect English Grammar

Online Practice - weekly Grammar points

Practice links organized by weekly grammar topic

Main points in Level 4 Grammar

Passive Voice

Present Continuous and Present Continuous Passive

Present Continuous

PC Function:

· Actions which happen at the time of speaking

· Temporary and permanent situations

· Future plans

· Changing situations or trends

· Behaviour that happens more often than expected

PC Form:

· Subject + am/is/are + verb + -ing

· Subject + am/is/are + not + verb + -ing

· Often used with adverbs of frequency (e.g. always, forever, constantly)

as in am/is/are + adverb + verb + -ing

Other Resources:

· https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/present-tense/present-continuous

· https://www.grammarly.com/blog/present-continuous/

Present Continuous Passive:

PC Passive Function:

· Actions being done (often by unknown agent) at the time of speaking

· If agent is mentioned, this marked with 'by'.

PC Passive Form:

· Subject + Am/is/are + being + v3/past participle

· Subject + Am/is/are + not + being V3/past participle

· Am (I)/is/are + Subject + being + V3/past participle?

Other Resources:

Past Simple passive

Function:

· Used to focus attention on the object of a sentence

· When the subject is unknown or unimportant

· Can only be used with transitive sentences

o Students should be familiar with the direct object

Form:

· Was or were + (not) + past participle

§ Yes/No: Was/were (not)

· Sometimes formed with "got"

· I got hit by a snowball.

· Doer of the action marked with "by"

Other Resources:

· https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/active-and-passive-voice

· https://webapps.towson.edu/ows/activepass.htm

Perfect Forms

Present Perfect/Present Perfect Continuous/and Present Perfect Passive / Future P

Function:

· Used to talk about actions which finished in the past with no specific time reference. These actions usually have a relation or connection to the present time period. Also used for unfinished actions that began in the past and continue up to now.

Form & Key Markers for the Tenses:

Present Perfect:

· Affirmative/Negative: Subject + has/have + (not) + past participle

· Questions: (WH...) + Has/Have + subject + past participle …?

· Marker words: ever, never, just, still, and already occur mid-sentence.

· Other markers such as recently, lately, so far, up to now, nowadays, this week, this month, this year, etc. occur at the start or end of sentences.

Present Perfect Continuous:

· Affirmative/Negative: Subject + has/have + (not) + been + present participle

· Questions: (WH...) + Has/Have + subject + been + present participle …?

· Main marker words: recently, lately, so far, up to now, nowadays, this week, this month, this year, for, and since.

Present Perfect Passive:

· Affirmative/Negative: Subject + has/have + (not) + been +past participle

· Questions: (WH...) + Has/Have + subject + been + past participle …?

· Main marker words: same as present perfect.

Other Resources:

http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/courses/elc/studyzone/410/grammar/pperf.htm
http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/courses/elc/studyzone/490/grammar/present-perfect-continuous.htm
https://www.examenglish.com/grammar/b1_presentperfect_pastsimple.htm (present perfect v. past simple)
https://www.examenglish.com/grammar/B1_presperf_continuous.htm (focusing on form)
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/quick-grammar/present-perfect-simple-and-present-perfect-continuous (short answer)

Past Perfect

Use:

We can use the past perfect to talk about an something that happened before something else in the past. (past before the past)

· We can use the past perfect when we write a narrative essay. We will always use the past perfect with the past simple verb tense to talk about things that happened in the past.

Before I had gone to the store, I wrote a grocery list.

· We can use the past perfect to talk about something that happened before the moment of speaking or thinking.

I thought that I had emailed my homework.

Form:

The past perfect is formed with the past form of have, had + past participle. It is usually written in a sentence with two clauses, where one event happened before the other. One clause contains the past perfect tense (first event), while the other contains the past simple tense (second event).

had + past participle

I thought that I had completed the assignment.

had + not + past participle

I thought that he had not emailed me the pictures.

had + subject + past participle

Had Mariam studied before she took the test?

Other Resources: (I used Michael Swan & Cambridge "Teacher's Grammar of English")

· https://www.ef.edu/english-resources/english-grammar/past-perfect-tense/

· https://www.examenglish.com/grammar/B1_past_perfect.htm

· https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verb-tenses_past-perfect-quiz.htm

· https://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/past-perfect-exercise-1.html

Future Forms

Future Perfect

Function:

We use the future perfect to talk about something that will be finished or complete before a specific time in the future.

The waiter will have served our food by the time you get back.

I will have studied all the vocabulary before our test next week.

This time next Monday, Aesha will have gotten her new car.

The following phrases are often used with the future perfect ton indicate the specific time in the future.

by

this time next week/year/Monday

in …. year/week/day’s time

when + present simple

by the time + present simple

Form:

The future perfect is formed using will followed by have and the past participle of the main verb.

In the negative sentence, not is placed between will and have.

In questions, the subject is placed between will and have.

I will have eaten the sandwich by 5 o’clock.

I will not have eaten the sandwich by 5 o’clock.

Will you have eaten the sandwich by 5 o’clock.

Future Perfect (passive)

Use: The passive form is used to put emphasis on the object.

Future Perfect (passive)

Form:

Like other passive forms, the object of the active sentence becomes the subject in the passive sentence. The agent (former subject in active voice sentence) can be identified using by.

The future perfect passive is formed by adding been (past participle of to be) between have and the past participle of the main verb.

The sandwich will have been eaten by 5 o’clock (by me).

The sandwich will not have been eaten by 5 o’clock.

Will the sandwich have been eaten by 5 o’clcok.

Other Resources:

· https://www.examenglish.com/grammar/future_perfect.htm

· https://www.ef.edu/english-resources/english-grammar/future-perfect/

Future Forms: Future Continuous

Function:

· To talk about something that will be happening at a certain time in the future

o Tomorrow at 8am, I will be teaching my class.

· Very similar to past continuous and primarily used for actions

o Rarely used with stative verbs like be, seem, appear, etc.

Form:

· when (or other time marker) + S + V (present simple), S + will + be + Ving

o When you come over, I will be making dinner.

o When I’m 65, I will be living on a boat in the Bahamas.

Other resources:

· https://www.ef.com/english-resources/english-grammar/future-continuous/

· https://www.grammarly.com/blog/future-continuous-tense/

· https://www.englishoutsidethebox.com/2015/12/15/what-is-a-stative-verb-in-english/

Sentence Structure / Cohesive Devices:

Relative Clauses

https://www.examenglish.com/grammar/ND_relative_clauses.htm (includes punctuation testing for that/which)

So & Therefore

Function of “so”:

· It is used in the middle of compound sentences to connect two independent clauses. It shows result or consequence.

· It a coordinating conjunction and is part of the FANBOYS: and, but, or, so, yet, for, and nor.

Form of “so” in a sentence:

· If + subject + verb ……… , so subject + verb ……. .

· The second clause may at times be followed by an additional clause to make a compound/complex sentence.

· It is generally accepted that a comma should precede “so” in a compound sentence, but some schools of thought say it’s not necessary.

Function of “Therefore”:

· It is used at the beginning of a sentence to connect with the sentence preceding it to show a result or consequence.

· It is an adverb but is also known by some as a “Sentence Connector", which means it begins a new sentence, relating to the sentence it.

Form of “Therefore” in a sentence:

· Previous sentence/condition. + Therefore, + subject + verb ……….

· Instead of using a full stop before “Therefore,” , it is also possible to use a semi-colon.

Other Resources:

· http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/330/grammar/coconj.htm

· http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/courses/elc/studyzone/410/grammar/410-compound-sentences.htm

While/Whereas:

Function:

· subordinating conjunctions used to link two contrasting ideas

· can be used interchangeably, EXCEPT when while refers to time (covered in L3 Past Continuous)

Form:

· while/whereas S + V, S + V; S + V, while/whereas S + V

Other Resources:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/learnit/learnitv69.shtml
https://www.englishpractice.com/learning/using-while-and-whereas/
http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/330/grammar/subcon.htm (subordinating clauses and / conjunctions – brief explanation and exercises)

Although/Even though/Though & Despite/In spite of

Function of Although/Even though/Though:

· Used to connect two clauses of contrast. All three forms can be used interchangeably.

Form of Although/Even Though/Though:

· Although/Even though/Though + s + v…, s+ v…

· S + v…. although/though/event though s+ v…

· Clauses may be moved with main clause followed by dependent clause

Function of Despite/In spite of:

· Used to connect one clause of contrast with a contrasting noun, pronoun, or noun phrase.

Form of Despite/In spite of:

· Despite/In spite of + noun/noun phrase/ pronoun, s+ v…

· The main clause may be moved to the front of the sentence with despite in the middle followed by its noun form.

Other Resources:

· https://www.ecenglish.com/learnenglish/lessons/in-spite-despite-and-although

· English Grammar in Use: Unit 113

Modality:

Modals of Deduction and Speculation (in the past – most of present and future covered in L3):

Function:

· to talk about what might/may/could/must have happened

o deducing events in the past

o must – when you’re sure something happened

o may/might/could – when you think something happened

o can’t – when you’re sure something DIDN’T happen

Form:

· S + may/might/could/can’t/must + have + V3/Past Participle

o He can’t have left already!

o Oh no! Someone must have stolen my iPad!

· Use of already can be somewhat tricky. Definitely acceptable between have and PP, but also possible to use in other places.

· The use of not before have changes the meaning of these phrases. This is not covered here, but can be used as an extension/challenge.

More resources:

Modals of Deduction - Present:

Modals of Deduction - Past:

Gerunds

Function:

The gerund has the same function as a noun. It allows the focus of the sentence to be changed, thus providing variety to the writing without changing the basic meaning. e.g.

It is wrong to throw stones v Throwing stones is wrong.

· Throwing stones is wrong. (Gerund as subject of sentence)

· The best thing about holidays is having free time. (Gerund as complement of verb ‘be’)

· She is good at playing the violin. (Gerund after preposition)

· When will you give up smoking? (Gerund after phrasal verbs)

· He is having a driving lesson. (Gerund as part of compound noun)

· I can’t stand listening to rock music. (Gerund after phrasal verb)

· I avoid going to the dentist. (Verbs followed by a noun or gerund.)

Form:

· Verb + -ing as in smoking, driving, singing used as a noun

· Also, not + verb + -ing - He enjoys not working.

Note: Gerunds are always nouns in sentences.

Other Resources:

(Gerunds)

(Infinitives)

(Gerund v. Infinitive)

http://learnenglishteens.britishcouncil.org/grammar-vocabulary/grammar-videos/verb-ing-or-verb-infinitive

Conditionals (2nd, 3rd, and 1st with "even if" and "unless")

2^nd Conditional

Function

· Used to talk unreal situations when referring to present time. We imagine a different scenario than the actual one now.

Form

· If + subject + verb past tense, subject + would/could (not) + verb base

· Clauses may be moved with main clause followed by dependent clause

· With the verb “be” the past tense form is acceptable as “were” for all forms or as was/were according to the traditional subject-verb agreement

3rd Conditional

Function

· Used to talk situations when referring to past time. We imagine a different scenario than the actual one that happened.

Form

· If + subject + past perfect …., subject + would/could (not) + have + past participle.

· Clauses may be moved with main clause followed by dependent clause

"Unless"

Function:

· "Unless" is used to make a dependent clause in a conditional sentence have a negative meaning. It can be replaced with "if" + a negative form of the verb in any of the three types of conditionals.

Function of: As long as/so long as & Provided (that)/providing(that)

· All four phrases mean the same as “if” and are used in conditional sentences to connect two clauses, to show the condition and result.

· All four forms as well as “if” itself can be used interchangeably.

· The meaning of the phrases implies the same as “if”, but may also be slightly more emphatic to mean, “on the condition that” or “only if”.

· These phrases are mostly used in the first conditional form, less common in second conditionals but possible, and quite rare in a third conditional.

Form of: As long as/so long as & Provided (that)/providing (that)

· As long as/so long as/provided (that)/providing (that) + s + verb simple present, s+ verb future … (=first conditional form)

· S + verb future …as long as/so long as/provided (that)/providing (that) + s + verb simple present (=first conditional form)

· Clauses may be moved with the main clause followed by the dependent clause.

· “That” after “providing” and “provided” is optional. The meaning is the same with or without “that”.

Other Resources:

· http://www.grammaring.com/if-even-if-only-if-as-long-as-provided-supposing-unless-but-for-if-necessary-if-so-in-case-etc

· English Grammar in Use: Unit 115

· https://www.englishgrammar.org/providing-long-exercise/ (unless vs provided that)

Other Resources / Online Practice:

(1st Conditional)

· http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/330/grammar/1cond.htm

· https://www.examenglish.com/grammar/A2_First_Conditional.htm (10 clear MC items)

(2nd Conditional)

· http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/courses/elc/studyzone/410/grammar/2cond.htm

· http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/410/grammar/2cond.htm

· https://www.examenglish.com/grammar/B1_second_conditional.htm

(3rd Conditional:)

· http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/410/grammar/3cond.htm

· https://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/courses/elc/studyzone/410/grammar/3cond.htm

· https://www.examenglish.com/grammar/B1_3rd_conditional.htm

(Even if - As long as - Provided - supposing - etc.:)

· http://www.grammaring.com/if-even-if-only-if-as-long-as-provided-supposing-unless-but-for-if-necessary-if-so-in-case-etc

Reflexive Pronouns: themselves and each other

Themselves and each other are different and one cannot be used in place of the other.

Form:

Themselves is the 3^rd person plural reflexive pronoun.

Themselves is one word and does not change.

The reflexive pronoun follows the main verb as in

‘They told themselves not to worry’ and ‘They found themselves in a difficult situation.’

Function:

1) We use reflexive pronouns when the Subject and the Object refer to the same thing.

Examples:

The men introduced themselves.

S O

They enjoyed themselves.

They will pay for themselves.

Do they sometimes talk to themselves?

2) Not all verbs can take reflexive pronouns, i.e.

a) We do not use themselves etc after feel/relax/concentrate/meet

b) We do not normally use themselves etc after wash, shave, dress unless for emphasis

3) When the reflexive pronoun themselves is removed, the remaining sentence is grammatically

incorrect, i.e. She found herself in a dangerous part of town. (Note – this is now incorrect)

See difference between reflexive and intensive pronouns at https://www.ef.com/english-resources/english-grammar/pronouns/

4) As an intensifier pronoun, themselves emphasizes the subject of the clause. They are not the object

of the action.

They themselves told me that it was not true.

5) Used with ‘by’

They lived by themselves. (They lived together but without any other people.)

Form:

Each other usually, but not always, follows a preposition like ‘to’, ‘for’, ‘at’.

They looked at each other.

S + V + prep + each other

They cared for each other.

S + V + prep + each other

They gave gifts to each other.

S + V + prep + each other

Each other does not change is form (it does not take S).

Function:

Each other is used when an action is reciprocated or shared.

I gave a present to him. He gave a present to me. We gave a present to each other.

Resources:

Little / A Little - Few / A Few