Teaching methods

B- Instructional Strategy

Instructional Strategy involves a huge variety of teaching/learning activities (microstrategies) such as:

• group discussions

• independent reading

• case studies

• lectures

• computer simulations

• worksheets

• cooperative group projects

Microstrategies: they are pieces of an overall macrostrategy that must take learners from a motivational introduction to a topic learners' through mastery of objectives.

A textbook is a microstrategy that serves primarily as a source of information (and is incomplete instruction).

Macroinstructional strategy: is the complete instruction created by an instructor and involves:

• defining objectives

• writing lesson plans and tests

• motivating learners

• presenting content

• engaging students as active participants in learning process

• administering and scoring assessments (providing feedback)

A well-designed set of instructional materials contains many strategies and procedures.

Three of the major components in the learning process that facilitate learning: (according to psychologists)

• motivation

• prerequisite and subordinate skills

• practice & feedback

Psychologists whose work influences approaches to instructional design:

• Behaviorists (30 to 40 years ago)

• Cognitivists (who later modified behaviorists' views)

• Constructivists (more recent; they suggested new approaches)

HOW to TEACH
The term Instructional Strategy covers the following:

1. selection of a delivery system

2. sequencing and grouping content

3. describing learning components that will be included in instruction

4. specifying how students will be grouped during instruction

5. establishing lesson structures

6. selecting media for delivering instruction

1- Selection of a delivery system: (instruction) (p.184)

The delivery system is the general methodology used for managing and delivering the teaching and learning activities called "instruction."

A delivery system is only part of an overall instructional strategy. Here are some examples of some common delivery systems:

• traditional model

• correspondence

• large-group lecture with small-group Q&A follow-up

• telecourse by broadcast or videotape

• two-way, interactive videoconference

• computer-based instruction

• Internet or intranet web-based instruction

• self-paced programs

• combinations and unique, custom systems

In an ideal instructional design process, one would consider the following:

• goal

• learner characteristics

• learning and performance contexts

• objectives

• assessment requirements

 Ideal path for choosing a delivery system:

1. review instructional analysis and identify logical clusters of objectives that will be taught in appropriate sequences

2. plan the learning components that will be used in the instruction

3. choose most effective student groupings

4. specify effective media and materials that are within the range of cost, convenience, and practicality for the learning context

5. assign objectives to lessons and consolidate media selections

6. select or develop a relevant delivery system 

However, in real life, things do not really happen this way. Then, the designer must be flexible and get everything out of the system that it is capable of delivering. The designer must make appropriate adaptations or propose an alternative system.

2- Sequencing and grouping content: (p.186)

A- Sequencing content

What sequence should we follow in presenting content? We should follow our instructional analysis, beginning with the lower-level skills. The instructional sequence tends to be a combination of bottom to top and left to right.

B- Clustering content

We may decide to present information

- on an objective-by-objective basis with intervening activities or

- on several objectives prior to any kind of learner activities

5 factors need to be considered when determining the amount of information to be presented:

1. age level

2. complexity of material

3. type of learning

4. if the activity can be varied

5. time required

3- Describing [Gagne's 9] learning components that will be included in instruction: (p.189)

Nine events represent external teaching activities that support mental processes of learning (cognitive psychology):

1. gaining attention

2. informing learner of objective

3. stimulating recall of prerequisite learning

4. presenting stimulus material

5. providing learning guidance

6. eliciting performance

7. providing feedback

8. assessing performance

9. enhancing retention and transfer

The purpose for developing an instructional strategy is planning how to guide learners' intellectual processing through the mental states and activities that psychologists have shown will foster learning.

Here are Gagne's events of instruction re-organized into 5 major learning components that are part of an overall instructional strategy:

a- Preinstructional activities
b- Content presentation
c- Learner participation
d- Assessment
e- Follow-through activities

____________________________

a- Pre-instructional activities: 3 factors to consider prior to beginning instruction:

- Motivating learners: John Keller (1987)- ARCS model

* Attention: gaining and sustaining attention (by using emotional or personal information, asking questions, creating mental challenges, using human-interest examples)

* Relevance: learners must perceive the instruction as relevant to them; instruction must be related to important goals in their lives > there should be congruence between learners' expectations and the instruction.

* Confidence: learners must be confident that they can master the objectives for the instruction. If the learners

- lack confidence > less motivated

- are overconfident > they will see no need to attend to the instruction

The challenge is to create the appropriate level of expectation for success (> zone of proximal development)

* Satisfaction: learners must derive satisfaction (extrinsic rewards or intrinsic feelings of accomplishment?) from the learning experience

 - Informing learners of the objectives > so that they know what to memorize, solve, or interpret.

Providing learners with the objectives helps them to

• focus their study strategies on these outcomes

• use more efficient study strategies

• determine the relevance of the instruction

- Informing learners of prerequisite skills: this will prepare them for the instruction to follow. Two purposes for this component:

• 1. make sure learners view the relationship between new content and what they already know (can be done through brief test of entry behaviors or by providing learners with a brief description of required entry behaviors)

  2. promote learners' active recall of relevant mental contexts in which the new content can be integrated.

b- Content presentation: we should determine what information, concepts, rules, and principles need to be presented. (Avoid presenting too much information, especially that unrelated to the objective)

It is important to

• define new concepts

• explain their interrelationship with other concepts

We also need to determine the types and numbers of both examples and nonexamples (deliberate attempt to point out why an example is wrong).

Forms of examples and non-examples:

• illustrations

• diagrams

• demonstrations

• model solutions

• scenarios

• case studies

• sample performances

c- Learner participation: Practice with feedback! Learners should be provided an opportunity to practice what we want them to be able to do + they should be provided feedback about their performance.

d- Assessment:

• Entry behavior tests

• Pretests

• Practice tests

• Posttests 

e- Follow-through activities:

• Memory aids for retention (job aids such as checklists are very useful)

• Transfer of learning: research indicates that learners transfer only some of what they learn to new contexts. The designer must be aware of that and use every means possible to promote the transfer of learning.
  
  Instruction is effective if learners can use it to further their study of more advance topics or to perform skills on the job that make a difference in their organization's effectiveness.

4- Specifying how students will be grouped during instruction: (p.207)

The type of student grouping (individual pairs, small group, large group) depends on specific social interaction requirements and is often mixed within and among the learning components in a lesson or unit.

5- Establishing lesson structures: (pp.198-199)

Matching learning components with the amount of guidance needed by the intended learners.

Check Moore & Kearsley's Theory of Transactional Distance (1996)

• Level of course structure: flexible vs. rigid

• Level of course dialogue: little interactive communication vs. lots of it

• Transactional distance: greater vs. lesser

• Suitability for learner autonomy level: highly autonomous learner vs. less autonomous learner who has not learned how to learn

6- Selecting media for delivering instruction: (p.209)

Media are useful to the extent that they effectively carry required learning components of an instructional strategy.

According to Clark (1983), it is the design of instruction, rather than the medium used to deliver instruction, that determines student learning. 

Detailed Outline for an Instructional Strategy: (p.197)

a- Preinstructional activities

1. Gain attention and motivate

2. Describe objectives

3. Describe and promote recall of prerequisite skills

b- Content presentation

1. Content

2. Examples

c- Learner participation

1. Practice

2. Feedback

d- Assessment

1. Entry behavior test

2. Pretest

3. Posttest

e- Follow-through activities

1. Memory aids for retention

2. Transfer considerations

Some Strategies + Lesson Plans (Worth considering, but disregard typing-- mainly punctuation-- mistakes)

Community Language Learning + Lesson Plan

Direct Instruction Model + Lesson Plan (pdf)

Inquiry Model + Lesson Plan  (pdf)

Example of an Instructional Strategy based on ISD

Merrill’s Instructional Transaction Theory: Enhancing the Online Learning Experience

C- Instructional Materials

In individualized instruction, many of the instructional events carried out by the instructor with a group of students are now presented to the individual student through instructional materials.

The instructor's role is different, and even more important than in lockstep instruction. The instructor is still

• the motivator

• the counselor

• the evaluator

• the decision maker

• responsible for each student's mastery of the objectives.

The delivery system and media selections: (p.238)

Three factors often cause compromise in media selections and the delivery system:

1. availability of existing instructional materials

2. production and implementation constraints

3. amount of instructor facilitation during instruction

When developing instructional materials consider:

1)       The three major components of an instructional package: 

• Instructional Materials: They contain the content – either written, mediated or facilitated by an instructor (the content includes materials for the major objectives, the terminal objective, and any materials for enhancing memory and transfer).  Instructional materials refer to any preexisting materials that are being incorporated, as well as to those that will be specifically developed for the objectives. The materials may also include information that the learners will use to guide their progress through the instruction.

• Assessments: All instructional material  should be accompanied by objective tests or by product or performance assessments. These may include a pretest and/or a posttest.

• Course Management Information: There is often a general description of the total package, typically called the instructor’s manual, which provides the instructor with an overview of the materials. It might include the following:

  • tests and other information considered important for implementing the course.

  • student guidance templates

  • automated class listing

  • student tracking

  • online testing

  • project monitoring

  • grade book

  • a variety of communication and messaging mechanisms
    
    Special attention should be paid to the ease with which course management information can be used by the instructor or course manager.

2)       The evaluation criteria when selecting existing instructional materials:

a- Goal-Centered Criteria for Evaluating Materials: They are focused on the content of the instruction. Specific criteria in this area include:

• congruence between content in materials and objectives

• adequacy of content coverage and completeness

• authority

• accuracy

• currency

• objectivity

b- Learner-Centered Criteria for Evaluating Materials: They are focused on the appropriateness of instructional materials for the target group. The learner analysis documentation should provide the foundation for this evaluation. Specific criteria in this area include the appropriateness of the materials for the learners with regards to their:

• vocabulary and language levels

• developmental, motivation, and interest levels

• backgrounds and experiences

• special language or other needs 

c- Learning-Centered Criteria for Evaluating Materials: They are focused on the adequacy of existing materials (do they need to be adapted or enhanced prior to use?).  Materials can be evaluated to determine whether the following items are included and adequate/complete:

1. preinstructional materials

2. content sequencing and presentation

3. student participation and congruent practice exercises

4. feedback

5. assessments

6. follow-through directions for enhancing memory and transfer

7. delivery system and media formats

8. learning guidance to move students from one component/activity to the next..

d- Context-Centered Criteria for Evaluating Materials: They are focused on the appropriateness of existing materials for the instructional and performance context. Judge if existing material can be adopted; if not, you are in instructional materials development business. Criteria in this area include:

• the authenticity of the materials for context and learners

• the feasibility of the materials for settings and budget. Here examine the technical quality of existing materials with regards to:

  • packaging

  • graphic design and typography

  • durability

  • legibility

  • audio and video quality

  • interface design

  • navigation

  • functionality

3)       Which types of learning components you would like to include:

• Preinstructional activities (including objectives and review materials + motivational materials and activities)

• Content (including examples and nonexamples of information, concepts, or skills that need to be learned)

• Participation activities (for practice) and feedback on students' performance 

• Assessment of learners’ mastery of new information and skills

• Activities that enhance memory and transfer

4)       Which types of material you want to include in an instructor’s guide:

• Information about target population

• Suggestions on how to adapt materials (for older, younger, higher achieving, or lower achieving students)

• Content overview

• Intended learning outcomes

• Suggestions for using the materials in a certain context or sequence

• Suggestions for materials management for 

1. individualized learning

2. small-group learning

3. learning-center activities

4. classroom activities 

• Retention and transfer activities:

1. tests that evaluate performance on terminal objectives

2. evidence of effectiveness of materials

3. suggestions for evaluating students' work and reporting progress

4. estimation of time required to use the materials properly

5. equipment or additional facilities needed for the materials 

5)      If the designer

• is the developer and the instructor: the whole process of materials development is rather informal.

• is not the instructor: there might be teams – manager, ID designer, SME (Subject Matter Expert), materials developer and evaluator. Here a premium is placed on precision specifications and working it requires communication and collaboration skills.