Krypton, like the other noble gases, is used in lighting and photography. Krypton light has many spectral lines, and krypton plasma is useful in bright, high-powered gas lasers (krypton ion and excimer lasers), each of which resonates and amplifies a single spectral line. Krypton fluoride also makes a useful laser medium. From 1960 to 1983, the official definition of meter was based on the wavelength of one spectral line of krypton-86, because of the high power and relative ease of operation of krypton discharge tubes.
Krypton was discovered in Britain in 1898 by William Ramsay, a Scottish chemist, and Morris Travers, an English chemist, in residue left from evaporating nearly all components of liquid air. Neon was discovered by a similar procedure by the same workers just a few weeks later.[12] William Ramsay was awarded the 1904 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovery of a series of noble gases, including krypton.[13]
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Krypton is characterized by several sharp emission lines (spectral signatures) the strongest being green and yellow.[20] Krypton is one of the products of uranium fission.[21] Solid krypton is white and has a face-centered cubic crystal structure, which is a common property of all noble gases (except helium, which has a hexagonal close-packed crystal structure).[22]
Like the other noble gases, krypton is chemically highly unreactive. The rather restricted chemistry of krypton in the +2 oxidation state parallels that of the neighboring element bromine in the +1 oxidation state; due to the scandide contraction it is difficult to oxidize the 4p elements to their group oxidation states. Until the 1960s no noble gas compounds had been synthesized.[27]
Following the first successful synthesis of xenon compounds in 1962, synthesis of krypton difluoride (KrF
2) was reported in 1963. In the same year, KrF
4 was reported by Grosse, et al.,[28] but was subsequently shown to be a mistaken identification.[29] Under extreme conditions, krypton reacts with fluorine to form KrF2 according to the following equation:
Krypton gas in a krypton fluoride laser absorbs energy from a source, causing the krypton to react with fluorine gas, producing the exciplex krypton fluoride, a temporary complex in an excited energy state:[30]
Compounds with krypton bonded to atoms other than fluorine have also been discovered. There are also unverified reports of a barium salt of a krypton oxoacid.[33] ArKr+ and KrH+ polyatomic ions have been investigated and there is evidence for KrXe or KrXe+.[34]
Earth has retained all of the noble gases that were present at its formation except helium. Krypton's concentration in the atmosphere is about 1 ppm. It can be extracted from liquid air by fractional distillation.[37] The amount of krypton in space is uncertain, because measurement is derived from meteoric activity and solar winds. The first measurements suggest an abundance of krypton in space.[38]
Krypton's multiple emission lines make ionized krypton gas discharges appear whitish, which in turn makes krypton-based bulbs useful in photography as a white light source. Krypton is used in some photographic flashes for high speed photography. Krypton gas is also combined with mercury to make luminous signs that glow with a bright greenish-blue light.[39]
Krypton's white discharge is sometimes used as an artistic effect in gas discharge "neon" tubes. Krypton produces much higher light power than neon in the red spectral line region, and for this reason, red lasers for high-power laser light-shows are often krypton lasers with mirrors that select the red spectral line for laser amplification and emission, rather than the more familiar helium-neon variety, which could not achieve the same multi-watt outputs.[42]
The krypton fluoride laser is important in nuclear fusion energy research in confinement experiments. The laser has high beam uniformity, short wavelength, and the spot size can be varied to track an imploding pellet.[43]
In experimental particle physics, liquid krypton is used to construct quasi-homogeneous electromagnetic calorimeters. A notable example is the calorimeter of the NA48 experiment at CERN containing about 27 tonnes of liquid krypton. This usage is rare, since liquid argon is less expensive. The advantage of krypton is a smaller Molire radius of 4.7 cm, which provides excellent spatial resolution with little overlapping. The other parameters relevant for calorimetry are: radiation length of X0=4.7 cm, and density of 2.4 g/cm3.
Although xenon has potential for use in computed tomography (CT) to assess regional ventilation, its anesthetic properties limit its fraction in the breathing gas to 35%. A breathing mixture of 30% xenon and 30% krypton is comparable in effectiveness for CT to a 40% xenon fraction, while avoiding the unwanted effects of a high partial pressure of xenon gas.[45] The metastable isotope krypton-81m is used in nuclear medicine for lung ventilation/perfusion scans, where it is inhaled and imaged with a gamma camera.[46] Krypton-85 in the atmosphere has been used to detect clandestine nuclear fuel reprocessing facilities in North Korea[47] and Pakistan.[48] Those facilities were detected in the early 2000s and were believed to be producing weapons-grade plutonium. Krypton-85 is a medium lived fission product and thus escapes from spent fuel when the cladding is removed.[49]
Krypton is considered to be a non-toxic asphyxiant.[52] Being lipophilic, krypton has a significant anaesthetic effect (although the mechanism of this phenomenon is still not fully clear,[53] there is good evidence that the two properties are mechanistically related), with narcotic potency seven times greater than air, and breathing an atmosphere of 50% krypton and 50% natural air (as might happen in the locality of a leak) causes narcosis in humans similar to breathing air at four times atmospheric pressure. This is comparable to scuba diving at a depth of 30 m (100 ft) and could affect anyone breathing it.
Under normal conditions krypton is colourless, odourless, fairly expensive gas. Solid krypton is a white crystalline substance with a face-centered cubic structure which is common to all the "rare gases". Krypton difluoride, KrF2, has been prepared in gram quantities and can be made by several methods.
Waid also made use of Superman's "S"-shield in his version of Krypton. While in previous comic versions of the mythos, it was assumed the "S" simply stood for "Superman"; in Birthright, Waid presented the symbol as a Kryptonian symbol of hope (borrowing and modifying a concept from Superman: The Movie). DC's mandate for Superman being Krypton's only survivor changed as well. Birthright heralded the return of Krypto, Kandor, and Kara Zor-El as Supergirl. Superboy's origins were retconned later revealing that he was the cloned son of Superman and Lex Luthor making him half kryptonian.
Superman Returns extends the crystalline Kryptonian technology from Superman: The Movie which allowed young Clark Kent to "grow" the Fortress of Solitude. In the new movie, Kryptonian crystals are able to grow huge land masses and incorporate the properties of the surrounding environment; a sliver taken from of one of the crystals used to test the theory causes Lex Luthor's basement to be filled with a huge crystal structure. Growing land in this manner causes widespread power failure in the vicinity, inadvertently causing the emergency involving a space-shuttle and an air-liner which acts as Superman's triumphant return. When he later returns to the Fortress of Solitude to find that the technology crystals that powered it have been stolen, Superman is visibly enraged. Lex Luthor later combines one of the crystals with kryptonite and shoots it into the ocean, creating what he calls "New Krypton". After being stabbed and falling into the sea, Superman uses his heat vision to get under the crust of the island and he then throws it into space. Bryan Singer has stated that the "New Krypton" island may return in the sequel.
In 1898, British chemists William Ramsay and Morris Travers discovered krypton as the residue of evaporating almost all of the other components of liquid air. For his work in the discovery of several inert gases, Ramsay was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1904.
Though scientists have been interested in radiokrypton dating for more than four decades, Krypton-81 atoms are so few and so difficult to count that it wasn't until a 2011 breakthrough in detector technology that Krypton-81 dating could be made available to earth science communities at large. The new atom counter, named Atom Trap Trace Analysis, or ATTA, was developed by a team of nuclear physicists led by Zheng-Tian Lu at Argonne National Laboratory near Chicago.
Krypton is present in the air at about 1 ppm. The atmosphere of Mars contains a little (about 0.3 ppm) of krypton. It is characterised by its brilliant green and orange spectral lines. The spectral lines of krypton are easily produced and some are very sharp. In 1960 it was internationally agreed that the fundamental unit of length, the metre, should be defined as 1 m = 1,650,763.73 wavelengths (in vacuo) of the orange-red line of Kr-33.
Argo City survived the demise of the planet owing to being encased in a force field built by Zor-El, Jor-El's brother who later would father Kara Zor-El. The soil beneath Argo was changed to Kryptonite by the shockwave, and Zor-El safeguarded the remaining Kryptonians, for a time, with lead shielding. And while the Argonauts were temporarily blessed, the Wizard City was decimated and arrived lifeless on Earth, having been similarly blasted from Krypton. It fell as a flaming kryptonite meteorite in Africa,[4] as Argo would similarly fall on Metropolis.[5]
This noble gas is colorless and odorless. It has a full outer shell of electrons, rendering it largely inert to reactions with other elements. Unlike its fellow noble gas neon, however, krypton does make some compounds. The most common is the colorless solid krypton difluoride (KrF2), according to the Thomas Jefferson National Linear Accelerator Laboratory. Krypton difluoride is only stable below minus 22 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 30 degrees Celsius), according to Chemicool. 0852c4b9a8
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