Kurzgesagt TikTok Sources
Well, hello there! 👋
In this sheet, we're listing all sources used for our TikTok videos in chronological order – the most recent always on top.
In this sheet, we're listing all sources used for our TikTok videos in chronological order – the most recent always on top.
Should We Mine Asteroids?
Animated Fact
Mirrors and space bags to mine asteroids:
https://www.space.com/30582-asteroid-mining-water-propulsion.html
Background:
Our original video Unlimited Resources From Space – Asteroid Mining
How does mining work on Earth? https://novascotia.ca/natr/meb/images/MiniingCycleLarge.png
Will mining asteroids be worth it? https://www.wired.com/story/things-are-looking-up-for-asteroid-mining/
Number of asteroids: https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/stats/totals.html
How rich in resources are asteroids?
https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2221345120
How many Near-Earth asteroids worth mining?
Comes up with a back of the envelope calculation based on [delta]V (energy costs to get to an asteroid) and asteroids that contain a billion dollars worth of resources. The same calculation is included in his paper here:
Martin Elvis paper – conservative estimates maybe 10 Near Earth containing enough platinum to make it worth it and maybe around 9,000 with water (though most small)
Current technology:
https://www.space.com/33776-osiris-rex.html (OSIRIS REX cost)
What technology will we need to mine asteroids? Also this Martin Elvis book: Asteroids
Adapting to possible high granularity/crumbliness of asteroids with, for instance, a big space bag
NASA’s list of things we’ll need for space exploration, inc. asteroid mining:
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20210009988/downloads/NASA-TM-20210009988Final.pdf
The payoff: WIRED: https://www.wired.com/story/things-are-looking-up-for-asteroid-mining/
The Most Dangerous Animal
Animated Fact
Facts and figures of dangerous animals:
https://www.sciencefocus.com/nature/what-animals-kills-the-most-people (lions and others)
https://www.statista.com/statistics/448169/deadliest-creatures-in-the-world-by-number-of-human-deaths/ (lions and others)
https://www.discoverwildlife.com/animal-facts/deadliest-animals-to-humans (Hippo - 500 a year; Crocodiles - 1000 a year)
Fear as a survival trait:
Quote: Our nervous system has a whole function around: “minimizing the number of threat encounters, and reducing the level of danger and duration of these encounters will maximize survival.”
Quote: As soon as you recognize fear, your amygdala (small organ in the middle of your brain) goes to work. It alerts your nervous system, which sets your body’s fear response into motion. Stress hormones like cortisol and adrenaline are released. Your blood pressure and heart rate increase. You start breathing faster. Even your blood flow changes — blood actually flows away from your heart and into your limbs, making it easier for you to start throwing punches, or run for your life. Your body is preparing for fight-or-flight.
Encounters with big cats:
Quote: Big cats like tigers and lions launched the deadliest attacks, with 65 percent proving fatal compared to 49 percent for canids and just 9 percent among the bear attacks.
How many die from Malaria?
https://www.who.int/teams/global-malaria-programme/reports/world-malaria-report-2022 (roughly 619,000)
Should you run or Freeze when you meet a mountain Lion?
Swatting mosquitoes cause them to stay away:
What's the Largest Black Hole?
This piece is based on our video: "The Largest Black Hole in the Universe – Size Comparison"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-largest-black-hole/
You Might Be Hosting Parasites Right Now!
Animated Fact
Parasite-Host-Interactions
Jackson, D.: Chemical Coevolution: Host-Parasite Arms Race Runs Hot and Cold. https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(08)00098-5.pdf
Wolves and Toxoplasma gondii: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/mind-control-parasite-makes-wolves-effective-pack-leaders/
Use of Testate Amoeba in Cold Case
Could We Destroy a Black Hole?
This piece is based on our video: "What Happens if You Destroy a Black Hole?"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-destroyablackhole/
Can We Stop the Deadliest Animal on Earth?
Animated Fact
Harvard FAQs on gene drive: https://wyss.harvard.edu/faqs-gene-drives/
Research paper on using CRISPR for malaria gene drive: https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1521077112
Nature article on engineered mosquitos: http://go.nature.com/1Ij39yS
STAT new article on using gene drive against Zika: https://www.statnews.com/2016/02/03/zika-gene-drive-gene-editing/
Tech review article on using gene drive against malaria: https://www.technologyreview.com/2016/04/13/246052/the-extinction-invention/
Smithsonian on deadliness of mosquitos: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/mosquitoes-kill-more-humans-human-murderers-do-180951272/?no-ist
Science article about the risks of the technology: https://www.science.org/content/article/us-academies-give-cautious-go-head-gene-drive
New Yorker on Pros and Cons: https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/the-perils-and-promises-of-gene-drive-technology
GatesNotes on death rate through mosquitos: https://www.gatesnotes.com/Most-Lethal-Animal-Mosquito-Week?WT.tsrc=Twitter
Status quo on field trial in the U.S.: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/u-s-one-step-closer-to-releasing-engineered-mosquito-to-fight-zika/
Evolution working against gene drive technology: https://theatln.tc/2cmMjau
Research paper on evolution of resistance against gene drive: https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/058438v1
Science news on possible safety feature for gene drive: https://www.sciencenews.org/article/seeing-upside-gene-drives-fatal-flaw
Malaria statistics 2021:
Malara Report 2022
https://www.who.int/teams/global-malaria-programme/reports/world-malaria-report-2022
Ethical Considerations
Largest Star in the Universe!
This piece is based on our video: "The Largest Star in the Universe – Size Comparison"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sourceslargeststar
Are Past, Present and Future All Happening at the Same Time?
This piece is based on our video: "Did the Future Already Happen? – The Paradox of Time"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-what-is-time
What Is Beyond the Edge of the Universe?
This piece is based on our video: "The Paradox of an Infinite Universe"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-infinite-universe/
Are You Stuck Inside an Online Filter Bubble?
This piece is based on our video: "The Internet Is Worse Than Ever – Now What?"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-why-we-hate-each-other/
Asteroids SUCK!
Animated Fact
How Often Do Chicxulub-Level Asteroids Hit Earth? https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/how-often-do-chicxulub-level-asteroids-hit-earth/#:~:text=Impacts%20of%20asteroids%20spanning%20more,ago%20is%20therefore%20mildly%20special
Nesvorny, D. et. al. (2021): Dark Primitive Asteroids Account for a Large Share of K/Pg-Scale Impacts on the Earth. https://arxiv.org/pdf/2107.03458.pdf
How many tiny meteroites hit Earth a day? https://www.iberdrola.com/innovation/meteorites-earth
Near Earth Asteroid numbers: https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/stats/totals.html (NEA 854 near-Earth asteroids larger than 1 kilometer in diameter)
Asteroid of one-kilometer or larger strikes Earth every 600,000 years: https://news.mit.edu/2003/asteroid-0910
115 Years Ago: The Tunguska Asteroid Impact Event: https://www.nasa.gov/history/115-years-ago-the-tunguska-asteroid-impact-event/
Planetary science: Tunguska at 100: https://www.nature.com/articles/4531157a
Near-Earth Asteroids as of January 2024: https://science.nasa.gov/science-research/planetary-science/planetary-defense/near-earth-asteroids/
NASA Confirms DART Mission Impact Changed Asteroid’s Motion in Space: https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-confirms-dart-mission-impact-changed-asteroids-motion-in-space/
Earth is safe from a devastating asteroid impact for 1,000 years (probably): https://www.space.com/earth-probably-safe-devastating-asteroid-impact-thousand-years
Fuentes-Muños, O. et. al. (2023): The hazardous km-sized NEOs of the next thousands of years. https://arxiv.org/abs/2305.04896
OSIRIS-REx - how much material did it return? https://science.nasa.gov/mission/osiris-rex/osiris-rex-faq/
Economics of the Stars: The Future of Asteroid Mining and the Global Economy: https://hir.harvard.edu/economics-of-the-stars/
Did asteroids bring water to Earth? Evidence suggests increasingly likely https://www.space.com/meteorite-water-found-with-new-method plus original paper https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/maps.13904
Could the Blueprint for Life Have Been Generated in Asteroids? https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/could-the-blueprint-for-life-have-been-generated-in-asteroids/
The Largest Black Hole
This piece is based on our video: "The Largest Black Hole in the Universe – Size Comparison"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-largest-black-hole/
Our Universe Could Destroy Itself
Animated Fact
Our YouTube video on this topic: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ijFm6DxNVyI
Further sources:
Are We on the Brink of the Higgs Abyss? https://physics.aps.org/articles/v8/108
Coleman, S. & De Luccia, F. (1980): Gravitational effects on and of vacuum decay. https://static.ias.edu/pitp/archive/2011files/PhysRevD.21.3305.pdf
The Origins of the Universe: Quantum origins: https://www.ctc.cam.ac.uk/outreach/origins/quantum_cosmology_three.php
The Deadly Aftermath of Nuclear War
This piece is based on our video: "What Happens AFTER Nuclear War?"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-nuclear-winter
That Time When Humanity Saved the Planet
Animated Fact
European Environment Agency (EEA)
On ozone hole and ozone depletion https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/topics/in-depth/climate-change-mitigation-reducing-emissions/current-state-of-the-ozone-layer
On Ozone-depleting substances (ODS)
Europe's Next Ice Age
Animated Fact
BBC: The Gulf Stream: https://www.bbc.co.uk/climate/impact/gulf_stream.shtml
What Is the Gulf Stream? https://scijinks.gov/gulf-stream/
Stommel, H. (1972): The Gulf Stream: A Physical and Dynamical Description. https://books.google.de/books?hl=de&lr=&id=mptrEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Gulf+Stream&ots=c-w2s_LJaJ&sig=VWltZZZ7LsnFnRuF3WIa9nsMbzg#v=onepage&q=Gulf%20Stream&f=false
The ‘Gulf Stream’ will not collapse in 2025: What the alarmist headlines got wrong: https://theconversation.com/the-gulf-stream-will-not-collapse-in-2025-what-the-alarmist-headlines-got-wrong-210773
Future of the Gulf Stream circulation: https://www.deutsches-klima-konsortium.de/en/climate-topics/gulf-stream-circulation.html
How Plants Have Their Own Internet
Animated Fact
On WoodWideWeb:
EFI/European Forest Institute: Open Letter about the importance of fungi for conservation: https://efi.int/news/open-letter-crucial-role-fungi-preserving-and-enhancing-biodiversity-2022-12-14
How Fungi Can Save the World: https://www.kew.org/read-and-watch/how-fungi-will-save-world
Length of a humans blood vessels (L_hbv):
Current world population (CWP): https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/#:~:text=2023%20World%20Population,the%20world%20population%20was%207%2C909%2C295%2C151.
-> Length of all human blood vessels (L_tot)
L_tot = CWP*L_hbv = 0.8 quadrillion
BBC Fungi Facts: https://www.bbcearth.com/news/8-fantastic-facts-about-fungi
CBC Fungi Facts: https://www.cbc.ca/natureofthings/features/fungi-are-responsible-for-life-on-land-as-we-know-it
Fungi helped plants to conquer land:
Your Brain Is Stupid
This piece is based on our video "The Internet Is Worse Than Ever – Now What?"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-why-we-hate-each-other/
AI Can Lend You a Hand – Literally!
Animated Fact
AI Is Revolutionizing Prosthetic Arm Control: https://www.discovermagazine.com/technology/ai-is-revolutionizing-prosthetic-arm-control
Artificial Intelligence Enables Real-Time and Intuitive Control of Prostheses via Nerve Interface: https://arxiv.org/pdf/2203.08648.pdf
Handrix: Animating the Human Hand: https://www.dgp.toronto.edu/~gelkoura/noback/scapaper03.pdf
The beat goes on: Using AI to build a drumming prosthetic: https://blog.google/outreach-initiatives/accessibility/ai-drumming-prosthesis/
Did any real pirates wear eyepatches or have peg legs? https://www.historyextra.com/period/stuart/peg-leg-pirates-real-eyepatches/
Your Skin Is a Conveyor Belt of Death
This piece is based on our video: "Your Tattoo Is INSIDE Your Immune System. Literally."
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-tattoo-inside/
What We Can Learn From the Bronze Age People
Animated Fact
What Caused the Bronze Age Collapse? https://www.history.com/news/bronze-age-collapse-causes
Crisis in Context: The End of the Late Bronze Age in the Eastern Mediterranean: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3764/aja.120.1.0099
Greek Dark Age: https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Dark_Age/
History of Greece: The Dark Ages: https://www.ancient-greece.org/history/dark-ages.html
When Civilization Collapsed by Eric Cline: https://longnow.org/seminars/02016/jan/11/1177-bc-when-civilization-collapsed/
Confronting “Collapse”. An anarchist perspective on the end of the Bronze Age. https://www.ancientworldmagazine.com/articles/confronting-collapse/
Drought may have doomed ancient Hittite empire, tree study reveals. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/08/ancient-hittite-empire-tree-study-drought
Severe multi-year drought coincident with Hittite collapse around 1198–1196 BC. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05693-y
Environmental Roots of the Late Bronze Age Crisis. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0071004
Millek, J. (2023): Destruction and Its Impact on Ancient Societies at the End of the Bronze Age. https://www.google.de/books/edition/Destruction_and_Its_Impact_on_Ancient_So/zeOyEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0
Dickinson, O. (2006): The Aegean From Bronze Age to Iron Age. https://books.google.de/books?id=8x8eiCyHdsAC&pg=PA1960&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=2#v=onepage&q&f=false
Kemp, L. & Cline, E. (2022): Systemic Risk and Resilience: The Bronze Age Collapse and Recovery. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-94137-6_14
Can We Stop a Supervolcano?
Animated Fact
What are supervolcanoes and should we really be worried about them? https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2023/11/10/supervolcanoes-explained-eruptions-history/
How dangerous are supervolcanoes? Get the facts. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/supervolcano-yellowstone
How to Trigger a Volcanic Eruption on Purpose: https://www.wired.com/2012/04/could-people-trigger-a-volcanic-eruption-on-purpose/
Capturing the Extreme in Volcanology: The Case for the Term “Supervolcano” https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2022.859237/full
Did the Toba volcanic eruption of ∼74 ka B.P. produce widespread glaciation? https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2008JD011652
Anticipating future Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) 7 eruptions and their chilling impacts. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geosphere/article/14/2/572/529016/Anticipating-future-Volcanic-Explosivity-Index-VEI
Four New Horsemen of an Apocalypse? Solar Flares, Super-volcanoes, Pandemics, and Artificial Intelligence. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8761044/
Supervolcanoes and their enormous eruptions: https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/what-is-a-supervolcano.html
Two supervolcanoes, a world apart, have the attention of scientists: https://www.nbcnews.com/science/science-news/supervolcanoes-earthquakes-flegrei-long-valley-caldera-rcna121781
The thought experiment: What would happen if the supervolcano under Yellowstone erupted? https://www.sciencefocus.com/planet-earth/the-thought-experiment-what-would-happen-if-the-supervolcano-under-yellowstone-erupted
Why you can’t plug any volcano: https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/vulcanian-eruptions.htm#:~:text=Vulcanian%20eruptions%20are%20propelled%20by,up%20of%20highly%20fragmented%20ash
Build up of Magma at Toba: https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2101695118
Why you can’t cover it with concrete:
Formation of concrete beneath Campi Flegrei: https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.aab1292
Potential for rupture at Campi Flegrei: https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-023-00842-1
How much magma beneath yellowstone? https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/a-surprising-amount-of-magma-is-under-yellowstones-supervolcano-180981229/
Nasa’s ambitious plan to stop Yellowstone: https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20170817-nasas-ambitious-plan-to-save-earth-from-a-supervolcano#:~:text=Nasa%20estimates%20that%20if%20a,of%20water%20in%20the%20supervolcano.
Response article warning against reporting this as “NASA’S PLAN”!: https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/no-nasa-isnt-going-to-drill-to-stop-yellowstone-from-erupting
And USGS (more reputable) addressing difficulties of drilling into volcanoes to ‘cool’ magma: https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/can-we-drill-yellowstone-stop-it-erupting
Chances of supereruption in our lifetimes:
Why Are Birth Rates Falling?
This piece is based on our video "Why Korea is Dying Out"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-populationcrash
Your Future Already Exists?!
This piece is based on our video "Did The Future Already Happen? – The Paradox of Time"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-what-is-time
Can AI Read Your Mind?
Animated Fact
The newest project that used Stable Diffusion to recreate the pictures people looked at:
https://sites.google.com/view/stablediffusion-with-brain/
with an FAQ:
https://sites.google.com/view/stablediffusion-with-brain/faq_en
and the papers:
https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.11.18.517004v3.full.pdf
https://arxiv.org/pdf/2306.11536.pdf
AI re-creates what people see by reading their brain scans: https://www.science.org/content/article/ai-re-creates-what-people-see-reading-their-brain-scans
This 'mind-reading' AI system can recreate what your brain is seeing: https://www.euronews.com/next/2023/08/21/this-mind-reading-ai-system-can-recreate-what-your-brain-is-seeing
Is my phone listening to me? https://us.norton.com/blog/how-to/is-my-phone-listening-to-me
AI predicts teen pregnancy: https://www.wired.com/story/argentina-algorithms-pregnancy-prediction/
Statistics predict pregnancy: https://www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2012/02/16/how-target-figured-out-a-teen-girl-was-pregnant-before-her-father-did/
Black Dwarfs Are Weird.
This piece is based on our video: "The Last Thing to Ever Happen in the Universe"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-sources-lastthing/
What Does The Milky Way Smell Like?
Infomercial
Belloche, A. et.al. (2009): Increased complexity in interstellar chemistry: Detection and chemical modeling of ethyl formate and n-propyl cyanide in Sgr B2(N)⋆ https://arxiv.org/pdf/0902.4694.pdf
Galaxy's centre tastes of raspberries and smells of rum, say astronomers: https://www.theguardian.com/science/2009/apr/21/space-raspberries-amino-acids-astrobiology
Sagittarius B2 Cloud: https://phys.org/news/2017-10-glycolaldehyde-ethylene-glycol-sagittarius-b2.html#:~:text=Sagittarius%20B2%20is%20a%20giant,years%20away%20from%20the%20Earth
Ethyl formate: https://www.acs.org/molecule-of-the-week/archive/e/ethyl-formate.html
Milky Way's giant black hole awoke from slumber 300 years ago: https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Milky_Way_s_giant_black_hole_awoke_from_slumber_300_years_ago
A raspberry flavoured galactic centre with a hint of rum: https://analyticalscience.wiley.com/content/article-do/raspberry-flavoured-galactic-centre-hint-rum
The Milky Way Smells of Rum and Raspberries: https://www.google.de/books/edition/The_Milky_Way_Smells_of_Rum_and_Raspberr/I8iKEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover
This Space Weapon Could Destroy Earth
This piece is based on our video: "How to Win an Interstellar War"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-interstellarwar/
World's Coziest City
Animated Fact
Central Park Tower residential area: https://thetowerinfo.com/buildings-list/central-park-tower/
Central Park Tower land footprint: https://www.lendlease.com/us/projects/central-park-tower/
Calculations
Inhabitants per tower
64,586 / (70 + 70) = 461.32
Number of towers needed
8 billion / 461 = 17.353 million
Land area of all those towers
17.353 million x 3716 m^2 = 64,485,900,216 m^2 = 64,485.9 km^2.
Relative population density
Average global human density:
8 billion / 510 million km^2 = 15.68 per km^2
Central Park Tower population density:
461/3716 = 0.124 per m^2 = 124,058 per km^2
Ratio
124,058 / 15.68 = 7911
How Much Gold Exists on Earth?
Animated Fact
General inspiration:
https://www.visualcapitalist.com/all-the-biomass-of-earth-in-one-graphic/
USGS. How much gold has been found in the world?
https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-much-gold-has-been-found-world
How Much Gold: https://www.gold.org/goldhub/data/how-much-gold
Compare also: https://medium.com/@eesmyal/human-cube-139424de80c9
How Much Water is There on Earth: https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth#:~:text=If%20all%20of%20Earth's%20water,%2C%20Utah%20to%20Topeka%2C%20Kansas
Biomass of Living things in the Ocean and Livestock figures:
https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1711842115
Specific calculations for cattle where I pulled the numbers: https://milo-lab.github.io/biomass_distribution/animals/chordates/livestock/livestock_biomass.html
Background on why carbon is used as biomass calculation:
150 Million Tons of Plastic in the Ocean Fact
Report cited: https://optoce.no/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/McKinsey-Stemming-the-tide-Land-based-strategies-for-a-plastic-free-ocean.pdf
Reported in the media: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/plastic-trash-in-seas-will-nearly-triple-by-2040-if-nothing-done
Reported by UN: (75–199 Million tons): https://www.unep.org/interactives/beat-plastic-pollution/
Mass of all stuff exceeds biomass: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-3010-5
Top 5 Most Iconic Moments EARTH EDITION
This piece is based on our video: "4.5 Billion Years in 1 Hour"
The detailed sources can be found here:https://sites.google.com/view/sources-timeline/
A Baby Universe
This piece is based on our video: "Ancient Life as Old as the Universe"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-big-bang-life/
You Are EVERYONE
This piece is based on our video: "The Egg – A Short Story"
The original short story by Andy Weir can be found here: https://www.galactanet.com/oneoff/theegg_mod.html
YOU Are in the Middle of Everything
This piece is based on our video: "The SMALLEST to the LARGEST Thing in the Universe – The Ultimate Size Comparison"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-middle-of-scale/
What Is Fire?
Animated Fact
How Fire Works: https://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/geophysics/fire1.htm
Starting a Fire: https://www.forestschooltraining.co.uk/_webedit/uploaded-files/All%20Files/Student%20Resources/12%20day%20Level%203/SP14SCI.pdf
What is Fire? https://www.pbs.org/video/its-okay-be-smart-fire/
What is a Flame? https://vimeo.com/40271657
Why Is It So Hard to Break Bad Habits?
This piece is based on our video: "Change Your Life – One Tiny Step at a Time"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-change/
2023 in Review: Good News
Animated Fact
Spain sees the world's first lung transplant performed entirely by robot: https://www.euronews.com/next/2023/04/19/spain-sees-the-worlds-first-lung-transplantation-performed-entirely-by-robot
Ocean treaty: Historic agreement reached after decade of talks: https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-64815782
500 baby sharks to be released: An exclusive look at an unprecedented mission: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/shark-rewilding-indonesia-oceans-conservation-zebra
Wind and solar are now beating coal in the US: https://electrek.co/2023/04/27/wind-and-solar-are-now-beating-coal-in-the-us/
Scientists report world’s first X-ray of a single atom in Nature: https://www.ohio.edu/news/2023/05/scientists-report-worlds-first-x-ray-single-atom-nature
2023 in Review: Space Edition
Animated Fact
Euclid Telescope: https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-67343374
Chandrayaann 3: https://www.space.com/india-chandrayaan-3-moon-landing-success
How to Clean Up Space
Animated Fact
Laser Broom related:
Remote controlled debris removal systems:
Space Net:
https://conference.sdo.esoc.esa.int/proceedings/sdc7/paper/434/SDC7-paper434.pdf
Harpoon:
https://www.sstl.co.uk/media-hub/latest-news/2019/removedebris-success-for-harpoon-experiment
(as well for speed of debris being 30,000 mph)
A Black Hole Appears! What Now?
Animated Fact
Primordial black holes may flood the universe. Could one hit Earth? https://www.space.com/primordial-black-hole-earth-collision-probability#
A Coin-Sized Black Hole Would Destroy Earth – Here's How: https://www.newsweek.com/penny-sized-black-hole-earth-what-would-happen-1579750
What Would Happen If a Coin-Sized Black Hole Were Placed at the Earth’s Center? https://slate.com/human-interest/2014/02/if-a-coin-sized-black-hole-were-placed-at-earth-s-center-what-would-happen.html
Black Hole Math: https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/black_hole_math.pdf
What Happens When a Black Hole Dies? https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2017/06/30/what-happens-when-a-black-hole-dies/
Gale, R. P. & Hochhaus, A. (2023): Nuclear war and physicians’ social responsibility. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41375-023-02025-5
How You Can Be Happier – According to Science
This piece is based on our video: "An Antidote to Dissatisfaction"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-dissatisfaction/
Are YOU the Center of the Universe?
This piece is based on our video: "The SMALLEST to the LARGEST Thing in the Universe – The Ultimate Size Comparison"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-middle-of-scale/
THIS is a Whale
Fully Developed Story
How did whales evolve?
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/how-did-whales-evolve-73276956/
Original papers:
Transitional record:
https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-009-0135-2
A Bacteria That Eats Plastic and Produces Vanilla Flavor?
Animated Fact
Marine Plastic Pollution: https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-brief/marine-plastic-pollution
Plastics, EDCs & Health: https://ipen.org/documents/plastics-edcs-health#:~:text=EDC%20exposure%20is%20a%20universal,microplastic%20and%20expose%20the%20population
Genetically engineered microbes convert waste plastic into vanillin: https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/genetically-engineered-microbes-convert-waste-plastic-into-vanillin/4013767.article
Could plastic-eating enzymes help curb pollution? https://www.dw.com/en/could-plastic-eating-enzymes-help-curb-pollution/audio-66156192
The Dangers Of Plastic Water Bottles: Why You Should Ditch Them For A Reusable Bottle: https://www.ozmo.io/the-dangers-of-plastic-water-bottles-why-you-should-ditch-them-for-a-reusable-bottle/#google_vignette
Plastic: It's Not All the Same: https://plasticoceans.org/7-types-of-plastic/
Can plastic-eating enzymes solve the recycling problem? https://channels.ft.com/en/rethink/can-plastic-eating-enzymes-solve-the-recycling-problem/
Technical, Economic, and Environmental Comparison of Closed-Loop Recycling Technologies for Common Plastics: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acssuschemeng.2c05497
Genetic Engineered Ideonella Sakaiensis Bacteria: A Solution of the Legendary Plastic Waste Problem: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3194556
Plastic pollution is growing relentlessly as waste management and recycling fall short, says OECD: https://www.oecd.org/environment/plastic-pollution-is-growing-relentlessly-as-waste-management-and-recycling-fall-short.htm
Plastic-eating bacteria: Genetic engineering and environmental impact:https://www.livescience.com/plastic-eating-bacteria
Bacteria really eat plastic: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2023/01/230123083443.htm#:~:text=Based%20on%20a%20model%20study,plastic%20soup%20in%20our%20oceans
Microplastics Are Polluting the Ocean at a Shocking Rate: https://www.wired.com/story/microplastics-are-polluting-the-ocean-at-a-shocking-rate/#:~:text=Some%2011%20billion%20pounds%20of,hope%E2%80%94if%20countries%20act%20now.&text=If%20you%20throw%20a%20polyester,as%20quite%20its%20former%20self
The Boomers of the Universe
This piece is based on our video: "The Last Thing to Ever Happen in the Universe"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-sources-lastthing/
What Happens When You Get a Tattoo?
This piece is based on our video: "Your Tattoo is INSIDE Your Immune System. Literally."
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-tattoo-inside/
What's Stopping Us From Colonizing the Solar System?
Animated Fact
Overview
Space Colonization: https://www.nasa.gov/headquarters/library/find/bibliographies/space-colonization/
The expert guide to space colonies: https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20141002-time-to-plan-a-space-colony
The future of space colonization – terraforming or space habitats? https://phys.org/news/2017-03-future-space-colonization-terraforming-habitats.html
The Human Body in Space: https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/the-human-body-in-space/
Size of the Space Economy/reductions in Launch costs
Thomas Roberts, “Space launch to low earth orbit: How much does it cost?,” Center for Strategic and International Studies, September 2020 in https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/aerospace-and-defense/our-insights/the-role-of-space-in-driving-sustainability-security-and-development-on-earth#/
The role of space in driving sustainability, security, and development on Earth, McKinsey & Co. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/aerospace-and-defense/our-insights/the-role-of-space-in-driving-sustainability-security-and-development-on-earth#/
Cost of sending people to space
NASA Should Send $17 Billion dollar human mission to Mars https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamiecartereurope/2023/05/18/nasa-should-send-17-billion-human-mission-to-mars-in-2033-say-experts/
Radiation
Review with many useful pointers:
https://www.mdpi.com/2673-592X/3/1/5
Magnetic Shields
https://phys.org/news/2022-05-magnetic-astronauts-dangerous-space.html
Plasma Shields
Consequences of exposure to Space Radiation:
https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/4/3/491
Effects of Gravity
Artificial gravity:
Treating the symptoms on their own:
https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/the-human-body-in-space/#section-4
Isolation and Confinement
Solutions and Strategies: https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/japplphysiol.00928.2015
The Battle of Two Titans Decides Our Fate as a Species
This piece is based on our video: "How to Destroy the Universe"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-interstellarwar/
Alien Weapons, Part 1
This piece is based on our video: "How to Win an Interstellar War"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-interstellarwar/
What Jobs Are Needed on a Space Colony?
Animated Fact
Salotti, Jean-Marc (2020): Minimum Numbers of Settlers for Survival on Another Planet. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-66740-0
Permanent Mars Colony is 'Long Way Down the Road' Nasa Says: https://www.space.com/32325-nasa-mars-colony-crewed-mission-outlook.html
Space Colonies Will Start Out Like the Wild West, Grow Family-Friendly: https://www.space.com/35179-space-colonies-for-future-humanity.html
How to create a bill of rights for Mars colonies: https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20140709-why-mars-needs-a-bill-of-rights
The Human Factor in the Settlement of the Moon: An Interdisciplinary Approach: https://books.google.de/books?id=hAlQEAAAQBAJ&printsec=copyright&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false
How do you stop astronauts going mad? https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20170208-how-do-you-stop-astronauts-going-mad
Human Enhancements: New Eyes and Ears for Mars: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-42036-9_6
Meusburger, Sandra Häuplik & Bishop, Sheryl (2021): Space Habitats and Habitability Designing for Isolated and Confined Environments on Earth and in Space. https://www.google.de/books/edition/Space_Habitats_and_Habitability/1wcxEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Space+Habitats+and+Habitability&printsec=frontcover
Your Brain Is Stupid
This piece is based on our video "The Internet Is Worse Than Ever – Now What?"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-why-we-hate-each-other/
Why Do Planets Rotate in a Disk?
Animated Fact
Why do the planets orbit in a plane parallel to the spin axis of the Sun?
Why is the Solar System flat and not a sphere? https://www.zmescience.com/feature-post/space-astronomy/solar-system/why-solar-system-flat/
Our Solar System: Facts: https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/facts/
How Did Homeopathy Become so Successful?
This piece is based on our video "Homeopathy Explained – Gentle Healing or Reckless Fraud?"
Basic principles of homeopathy:
List of homeopathic remedies: https://homeopathycenter.org/search-materia-medica/
Information on various homeopathic potencies:
http://www.homeopathichealing.org/x-c-and-m-the-alphabet-of-homeopathic-potency.html
Physical examination of the dilution: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.2042-7166.2012.01162.x
Hahnemann's explanation for the effectiveness of homeopathy despite dilution:
§ 270 Sixth edition
http://www.homeoint.org/books/hahorgan/organ260.htm#P270E5
Hahnemann's rules for taking homeopathic remedies, Organon (Collection) of Medicine §260 6th edition: http://www.homeoint.org/books4/organon/org260.htm#p270
Studies on the lack of effectiveness of homeopathic products:
Statement of the European Academies Science Advisory Council September 2017: https://easac.eu/fileadmin/PDF_s/reports_statements/EASAC_Homepathy_statement_web_final.pdf
Systematic studies by Mathie et. al. and other employees of the Homeopathic Research Institute: https://systematicreviewsjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13643-017-0445-3
FDA statement requiring homeopathic companies to prove the efficacy of their products: https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/public_statements/996984/p114505_otc_homeopathic_drug_enforcement_policy_statement.pdf
Statement from the FDA on their approach to homeopathic remedies: https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/homeopathic-drug-products-guidance-fda-staff-and-industry
How Does Beaming Work?
Animated Fact
Quantum teleportation: https://journals.aps.org/prl/pdf/10.1103/PhysRevLett.70.1895
Teleportation Physics: https://sgp.fas.org/eprint/teleport.pdf
Quote: “whereas the extraction of a minimum of 10^28 kilobytes will be required to encode and store an entire human being.”
A quettabyte: 10^30 byte
A kilobyte: 10^3 byte
=> 10^28 kB = 10^31 B = 10 QB
Transmitting the info of a human would take quadrillions of years:
and in more detail:
https://journals.le.ac.uk/ojs1/index.php/pst/article/view/2089/1993
Calculations:
2.977*10^19 bits/s = 3.72125*10^18 bytes/s
10 quettabytes = 10^31 bytes
=> 10^31/(3.72125*10^18) = 85213 years
The Last Thing to Ever Happen in the Universe
This piece is based on our video: "The Last Thing to Ever Happen in the Universe"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-sources-lastthing/
How Radioactive Are Your Teeth?
Fully Developed Story
520 nuclear tests, yield of 545 megatons:
https://www.unscear.org/docs/publications/1993/UNSCEAR_1993_Report.pdf
10,000 cancers per megaton, including FvH commentary:
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08929880903368682?journalCode=gsgs20
Summary article as a general source
https://www.americanscientist.org/article/fallout-from-nuclear-weapons-tests-and-cancer-risks
World's Deadliest Parasitic Disease
Animated Fact
The History of Malaria, an Ancient Disease: https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/history/index.html#:~:text=By%20the%20end%20of%201949,eliminated%20from%20the%20United%20States.
Exploring the spatiotemporal drivers of malaria elimination in Europe: https://malariajournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12936-016-1175-z#:~:text=By%201975%2C%20Europe%20was%20declared,retained%20that%20status%20ever%20since.&text=Factors%20that%20might%20have%20driven,Europe%20have%20been%20widely%20discussed.
Malaria WHO: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria
Malaria WHO graphic: https://www.who.int/multi-media/details/worldwide-in-2021-there-were-an-estimated-247-million-malaria-cases
How do you catch it? https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/faqs.html#:~:text=Malaria%20may%20cause%20anemia%20and,confusion%2C%20coma%2C%20and%20death.
Symptoms and Diagnosis: https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v42/n11/steven-shapin/drain-the-swamps
Why don't we just kill all the mosquitoes?
What about genetic engineering?
Vaccines:
What can we do to fight Malaria?
Why Are You Alive?
This piece is based on our video: "Why Are You Alive – Life, Energy & ATP"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sourceswhyareyoualive
Could Aliens Destroy Us From Light-Years Away?
This piece is based on our video: "How to Win an Interstellar War"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-interstellarwar/
Additional Source:
What If Earth Suddenly Turned into Gold?
This piece is based on our video: "What If the Earth Turned to Gold? The Gold Apocalypse"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sourcesgoldapocalypse/
How Old Can You Possibly Get? (According to Science)
Animated Fact
How long can we live? https://www.nytimes.com/201/04/28/magazine/human-lifespan.html
Scientists up stakes in bet on whether humans will live to 150: https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2016.20818#/b1
Life Extension: https://www.billhalal.com/blog/life-extension/
On natural limits to lifespan:
Healthspan:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6136295/
Lifespan:
https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-022-00291-z
Limit to lifespan through loss of resilience:
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-23014-1
Current Life expectancy:
71 years in 2021, 66.5 in 2000 https://ourworldindata.org/life-expectancy#life-expectancy-has-improved-globally
Dying of ‘old age’:
Leading causes of death: https://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars/pdf/leading_causes_of_death_by_age_group_2020-508.pdf
Where Are the Aliens? The Dark Forest Theory
This piece is based on our video: "Why We Should NOT Look For Aliens – The Dark Forest"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-darkforest/
Let's Destroy Maths!
Animated Fact
Ancient Babylonian Number System Had No Zero: https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/roots-of-unity/ancient-babylonian-number-system-had-no-zero/
What is the origin of zero? How did we indicate nothingness before zero?https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-the-origin-of-zer/#:~:text=The%20first%20recorded%20zero%20appeared,the%20end%20of%20the%20eighth.
We couldn’t live without ‘zero’ – but we once had to: https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20161206-we-couldnt-live-without-zero-but-we-once-had-to
Number system without zero: https://paradise.caltech.edu/ist4/lectures/foster%201947%20decimal%20no%20zero%20number%20system.pdf
It's an El Niño Year! But What Is It?
Animated Fact
Could have been around for thousands of years:
Around 30 events since 1900:
Different types of El Niño:
El Nino Southern Oscillation
canonical Eastern Pacific
central Pacific -> more frequent atlantic hurricanes (see here)
These are disputed (too few data points, no variations found under different methods or wrong type of distinction)
Affects tropical cyclone formation and landfall:
Not all effects are guaranteed:
below average rainfall (Indonesia and north. South America)
above average rainfall (southeastern South America, eastern equ. Africa and southern US)
What Happens When You Swallow a Tapeworm?
Animated Fact
Breedlove, B. & Bradbury, R. (2022): Tapeworm Enigma. In: Emerging Infectious Diseases, p. 1306–1308. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9155875/
Warrell, D.A. (2020): Injurious Arthropods. In: Hunter's Tropical Medicine and Emerging Infectious Diseases (Tenth Edition). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780323555128001381#f0045
Do We See the Same Colors?
Animated Fact
You won't believe your eyes: The mysteries of sight revealed: https://web.archive.org/web/20080706001354/http://news.independent.co.uk/world/science_technology/article2336163.ece
How we see color - Colm Kelleher: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l8_fZPHasdo
Neil deGrasse Tyson Explains How We See Colors: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OtcxYsUS_wc )
Your Color Red Really Could Be My Blue: https://www.livescience.com/21275-color-red-blue-scientists.html
Mometrix: Reflection, Transmission, and Absorption of Light
Something is Killing YOU Silently
Animated Fact
WHO Sources:
Air pollution: https://www.who.int/health-topics/air-pollution#tab=tab_3
Landing page for effects of pollution on health: https://www.who.int/teams/environment-climate-change-and-health/air-quality-and-health/health-impacts/exposure-air-pollution
WHO Guidelines: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240034228
Mortality from environmental pollution: https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/topics/sdg-target-3_9-mortality-from-environmental-pollution
Some numbers from this:
24% of all global deaths are linked to the environment
91% of world’s pop lives above WHO guideline limits
Ambient Air pollution: https://www.who.int/teams/environment-climate-change-and-health/air-quality-and-health/sectoral-interventions/ambient-air-pollution
British Heart Foundation:
Can air pollution kill you? https://www.bhf.org.uk/what-we-do/news-from-the-bhf/news-archive/2020/february/can-air-pollution-kill-you
Air pollution and heart health: https://www.bhf.org.uk/what-we-do/our-research/risk-factor-research/air-pollution-research
Why is air pollution a problem? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYSAPwQwMTk&t=157s
Monkey With Typewriters – IN SPACE?
This piece is based on our video: "We Did the Math – You Are Dead!"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-boltzmannbrain/
Can You Escape a Black Hole?
Animated Fact
This piece was created based on personal conversations with Prof. M. Caplan.
The Origin of Viruses
This piece is based on our video: "This Virus Shouldn't Exist (But it Does)"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-girus/
The Future of Healthcare
This piece is based on our video: "Why Korea is Dying Out?"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-populationcrash/
Let's Destroy a Black Hole! Part 2
This piece is based on our video: "What Happens if You Destroy a Black Hole?"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-destroyablackhole/
Moving Faster Than the Speed of Light?
Animated Fact
Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity: https://www.space.com/36273-theory-special-relativity.html, based on A. Einstein, Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper, 1905, Annalen der Physik; vol. 4, t. 17, 891-921
Hubble Reaches New Milestone in Mystery of Universe’s Expansion Rate: https://science.nasa.gov/missions/hubble/hubble-reaches-new-milestone-in-mystery-of-universes-expansion-rate
Mystery of the Universe’s Expansion Rate Widens With New Hubble Data: https://science.nasa.gov/missions/hubble/mystery-of-the-universes-expansion-rate-widens-with-new-hubble-data
Homogeneity and Isotropy: https://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/cosmo_02.htm#MD
Cosmic Horizons: https://explainingscience.org/2021/04/30/cosmic-horizons/
Wolfram Alpha: https://www.wolframalpha.com/input?i=%28%28c%2FH_0%29%2Fradius+of+the+observable+universe%29%5E3
Are We the Aliens?
This piece is based on our video: "Ancient Life as Old as the Universe"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-big-bang-life/
How Does Lightning Work?
Animated Fact
Lightning Capitol of the world: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-world-s-top-lightning-hotspot-is-lake-maracaibo-in-venezuela/
Longest Strike: https://phys.org/news/2022-02-longest-lightning-miles-states.html
Myths about Lightning: https://www.noaa.gov/stories/5-striking-facts-versus-myths-about-lightning-you-should-know#:~:text=Myth%3A%20Lightning%20never%20strikes%20in,5.
Is Humanity Dying Out?
This piece is based on our video: "Why Korea is Dying Out"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-populationcrash/
Let's Destroy a Black Hole! Part 1
This piece is based on our video: "What Happens if You Destroy a Black Hole?"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-destroyablackhole/
The Laziest Animal Ever?
This piece is based on our video: "The Horror of the Slaver Ant"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-slaver-ants/
Cryonics – Freezing Yourself For The Future
Animated Fact
Slim chances of business survival:
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311886.2016.1167576
Successful vitrification of a rabbit kidney:
Let's Shrink Earth!
Animated Fact
Bhaskaran, Santosh et. al. (2009): Life and Gravity. Biophysical Reviews and Letters, 4,4 https://doi.org/10.1142/S179304800900106X
De Witt, John K. et. al. (2014): The preferred walk to run transition speed in actual lunar gravity, J Exp Biol 217 (18): 3200–320 https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.105684
What would happen if gravity was reduced by half? https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-what-would-happen-if-gravity-was-reduced-by-half-141251#:~:text=Half%20the%20gravity%20would%20reduce,to%20breathe%20in%20enough%20oxygen
Frequently Asked Questions:
Why does halving the radius lead to ⅛ of the volume?
We halved the radius of the Earth, keeping the average density of the planet the same. This allows us to roughly estimate the mass by multiplying the new volume by the unchanged density. The volume of a sphere depends on the radius to the power of three (r^3) – so halving the radius actually means dividing the volume by 8. You can see the equation for this at 0:08
What if we removed the layers instead of halving the radius?
We went with the approach of halving the radius as it seemed to us to be more logical to simply shrink Earth instead of removing the outer layers until it was half the size.
Shrinking something in a scientifically correct way is a hard thing to do, this is something we learned during the development of our VR experience.
There are two methods: either you shrink things by removing their atoms while keeping the density the same, or you shrink them by reducing the distance between atoms while increasing the density. We opted for the first technique, simply because it keeps stuff more or less the way it is, so stones will just be smaller stones after shrinking them.
Removing layers would only mean three things:
1. Changing the average density of the Earth, making our calculations a bit more complicated.
2. The outer shell of Earth would now be the Earth's mantle, which is a scorching 1000–2000°C
3. All things on Earth would immediately burn up – from flora and fauna to buildings and us humans.
So this would be a pretty boring scenario.
Why is a day 48 minutes long?
For the duration of a day, we use the formula for angular momentum. It’s the product of angular inertia (how difficult it is to start and stop the rotation of an object) and angular velocity (how quickly an object rotates around an axis of rotation). Angular inertia is proportional to mass and the square of the radius. Halving the radius led to an eighth of the mass, so the angular inertia is divided by 32 – this comes from 1/8 (from the mass) multiplied by 1/4 (from the square of the halved radius). But angular momentum needs to be conserved, so the angular velocity has to change. It needs to cancel out the inertia loss by increasing to 32 times the speed. Thus, a day will be 32 times shorter. You can see the equation for this at 0:15 in the video.
Would You Spend Your Entire Life in a Spaceship?
Animated Fact
World Ships - Architectures & Feasibility Revisited: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236177990_World_Ships_-_Architectures_Feasibility_Revisited
Why it's Important to Surround Yourself With Beauty
This piece is based on our video "Why Beautiful Things Make Us Happy – Beauty Explained"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/kgssourcesbeauty
How We Eradicated One of the Deadliest Diseases
This piece is based on our video "The (Second) Deadliest Virus"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-smallpox/
Why Biotechnology Advances so Rapidly
This piece is based on our video "The Most Dangerous Weapon is Not Nuclear"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-biorisk
Bananas Produce Antimatter
Animated Fact
Positrons from bananas: https://www.quantumdiaries.org/2009/07/21/positrons-from-bananas/
Price of one gram of antimatter being $62.5 trillion:
https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/prop12apr99_1
Banana equivalent unit:
https://www.radiation-dosimetry.org/what-is-banana-equivalent-dose-bed-definition/
Some facts about potassium 40-K:
Banana facts:
https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/173944/nutrients
Amount of bananas produced in 2021:
https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL -> 137 Million tonnes
Are You Real?
This piece is based on our video "You're a Dream of the Universe (According to Science)"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-boltzmannbrain/
How to Form Long-Lasting Habits
This piece is based on our video "Change Your Life – One Tiny Step at a Time"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-change/
Why Beauty Makes Us Happy
This piece is based on our video "Why Beautiful Things Make Us Happy – Beauty Explained"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/kgssourcesbeauty
POV: Zombies Invade Your City
This piece is based on our video "The Reason Why Cancer is so Hard to Beat"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-cancer-city/
YOU Own The Moon!
Animated Fact
Space commons:
https://swfound.org/media/207517/swf_brief_is_space_a_global_commons_pp2301_final.pdf
Outer Space Treaty 1967: https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/outerspace
Artemis Accords: https://www.state.gov/artemis_at_two
Our Brains Are Not Special – Why Are We?
Animated Fact
Human brain scaling: https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1201895109
Human brain organoid integrating and connecting inside a rat brain:
https://www.cell.com/cell-stem-cell/fulltext/S1934-5909(23)00004-8
Neuron firing rates: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4879195/
Elephant brain figures: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24971054/
POV: Billions of Lives Depend on Your Decision
This piece is based on our video "How a Nuclear War Will Start – Minute by Minute"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-mr-president/
How Do Touchscreens Work?
Animated Fact
Touchscreens: An Engineered Harmony Between Humans and Machines: https://illumin.usc.edu/touchscreen-an-engineered-harmony-between-humans-and-machines/#:~:text=Abstract,technology%20into%20our%20everyday%20lives
Touchscreens: https://www.iop.org/explore-physics/physics-around-you/technology-our-lives/touchscreen#gref
Capacitive Touch explained: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cFvh7qM6LdA
How a Nuclear War Starts
This piece is based on our video: "How a Nuclear War Will Start – Minute by Minute"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-mr-president/
A Rare Genetic Condition: Polydactyly
Animated Fact
Polydactyly in Development, Inheritance, and Evolution: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29558608/
Full text: https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/690841#
Destroy a Black Hole?
This piece is based on our video: "What Happens If You Destroy a Black Hole?"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-destroyablackhole/
What Would Happen if the Sun Disappeared?
Animated Fact
How old is the Sun?https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/sun-age/en/#:~:text=Stars%20like%20our%20Sun%20burn,five%20billion%E2%80%94years%20to%20go.
Light travel time between Sun and Earth: https://www.pbs.org/seeinginthedark/astronomy-topics/light-as-a-cosmic-time-machine.html
If the Sun went out, how long would life on Earth survive? https://www.popsci.com/node/204957/#:~:text=Within%20a%20week%2C%20the%20average,hundreds%20of%20thousands%20of%20years.
How long can we survive without photosynthesis: https://www.newscientist.com/lastword/mg23431311-500-plant-departure/#:~:text=However%2C%20our%20species%20might%20survive,would%20last%20about%205000%20years.
What would Earth be like without the Sun? https://www.wonderopolis.org/wonder/what-would-earth-be-like-without-the-sun
What would happen if the Sun disappeared? https://www.spaceanswers.com/solar-system/what-would-happen-if-the-sun-disappeared
How Vaccines Work
This piece is based on our video: "The Side Effects of Vaccines – How High is the Risk?"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-vaccines
Is the Placebo Effect Real?
This piece is based on our video: "Homeopathy Explained – Gently Healing or Reckless Fraud?"
The Placebo and Nocebo Phenomena: Their Clinical Management and Impact on Treatment Outcomes: https://www.clinicaltherapeutics.com/article/S0149-2918(17)30077-2/pdf
Placebo interventions for all clinical conditions: https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD003974.pub3/abstract
Effects of placebos without deception compared with no treatment: A systematic review and meta-analysis: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28452193/
Caregiver placebo effect in analgesic clinical trials for cats with naturally occurring degenerative joint disease-associated pain: https://europepmc.org/article/med/28270539
New Study on the Placebo Effect and Antidepressants in Children and Adolescents: https://www.unibas.ch/en/News-Events/News/Uni-Research/New-Study-on-the-Placebo-Effect-and-Antidepressants-in-Children-and-Adolescents.html
Placebo in animals: https://www.spiegel.de/gesundheit/diagnose/homoeopathie-wieso-es-einen-placeboeffekt-bei-tieren-gibt-a-974333.html (German source)
Is Humanity Doomed?
Animated Fact
Positive developments taken from:
https://slides.ourworldindata.org/war-and-violence/#/title-slide
Renewables getting cheaper:
Global literacy development:
and it’s connection to democracy: https://ourworldindata.org/global-education#countries-with-higher-educational-attainment-in-the-past-are-more-likely-to-have-democratic-political-regimes-today
and
https://www.jstor.org/stable/25699060?seq=23
Life expectancy almost doubled:
Number of democracies around the world:
https://ourworldindata.org/democracy#key-insights
Set lower time to 2000 (https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/countries-democracies-autocracies-row?tab=table&stackMode=absolute&time=2000..latest )
Add electoral and liberal democracy numbers
2000: 85
2022: 90
Get increase:
90/85 *100 - 100= 6%
The (Second) Most Deadliest Virus on Earth
This piece is based on our video: "The (Second) Deadliest Virus"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-smallpox/
The Most Powerful Explosion in the Universe
Animated Fact
Gamma-ray bursts as a threat to life on Earth: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-astrobiology/article/abs/gammaray-bursts-as-a-threat-to-life-on-earth/EED2E88320E43958BD6913C2F864C379
Thomas, B. (2009). Gamma-Ray Bursts as a Threat to Life on Earth: https://arxiv.org/abs/0903.4710
Are Solar Flares Over- or Underrated?
Animated Fact
NASA FAQ page on solar storms:
https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/spaceweather/index.html
Our Sun Is Capable of Producing Dangerous ‘Superflares’, New Study Says: https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/our-sun-is-capable-of-producing-dangerous-superflares-new-study-says
Superflares- recent paper and press release
Attack of the Fungi
Animated Fact
It's time to fear the fungi: https://www.wired.com/story/fungi-climate-change-medicine-health/
von Lilienfeld-Toal M., Wagener J., Einsele H., Cornely O. A., Kurzai O., 'Invasive Fungal Infection', Deutsches Ärzteblatt, 116(16), 271-278, 2019, doi: 10.3238/arztebl.2019.0271.
Almeida F., Rodrigues M. L., Coelho C., 'The Still Underestimated Problem of Fungal Diseases Worldwide, Frontiers in Microbiology, 10, 2019, doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00214
Gusa A., Yadav V., Roth C., Williams J., Meil Shouse E., Magwene P., Heitman J., Jinks-Robertson S., 'Genome-Wide Analysis of Heat Stress-Stimulated Transposon Mobility in the Human Fungal Pathogen Cryptococcus deneoformans', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Jan. 20, 2023, doi: 10.1073/pnas.2209831120
Warmer climate my drive fungi to be more dangerous to our health: https://www.asbmb.org/asbmb-today/science/020723/warmer-climate-may-drive-fungi-to-be-more-dangerou
The science that spawned fungal fear in HBO's 'The Last of Us': https://www.npr.org/transcripts/1157842018#:~:text=Neuman)%20True.,able%20to%20withstand%20higher%20temperatures.
Du H, Bing J, Hu T, Ennis CL, Nobile CJ, Huang G. Candida auris: Epidemiology, biology, antifungal resistance, and virulence. PLoS Pathog. 2020 Oct 22;16(10):e1008921. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008921. PMID: 33091071; PMCID: PMC7581363.
Let's Nuke the Moon
This piece is based on our video: "What if We Nuke the Moon"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-nukethemoon/
POV: You Travel Back in Time to the Early Universe
This piece is based on our video: "Black Hole Star – The Star That Shouldn't Exist"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-black-hole-star
How Much CO2 Does Your Diet Emit?
This piece is based on our video: "Is Meat Really That Bad?"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-climate-meat/
Space Elevator DIY
Animated Fact
Concept Overview: https://www.isec.org/faq/#What%20is%20it
Concept discussion: https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20150211-space-elevators-a-lift-too-far
Material discussion:
Longest diamond nanothread 90 nanometers:
Space Elevator on Mars/Moon:
https://frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/project.archive/1976.skyhook/papers/scasci.txt
AI – Curse or Blessing
Animated Fact
Should We Stop Developing AI For The Good Of Humanity?
Problems in AI safety: https://arxiv.org/pdf/1606.06565.pdf
How Cancer Develops in Your Body
This piece is based on our video: "The Reason Why Cancer is so Hard to Beat"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-cancer-city/
Dying in a Nuclear Winter
Animated Fact
This piece was created based on personal conversations with Prof. M. Caplan.
The Next Atomic Bomb?
This piece is based on our video: "The Next Pandemic Will Be Man Made"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-biorisk
What Happens if Earth Suddenly Stops Rotating
Animated Fact
Earth's Magnetosphere: Protecting Our Planet from Harmful Space Energy. https://climate.nasa.gov/news/3105/earths-magnetosphere-protecting-our-planet-from-harmful-space-energy/#:~:text=As%20this%20roiling%20mass%20of,is%20known%20as%20the%20geodynamo.
What if the Earth stopped spinning? https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0262407911601607
Rotation: https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/rotation/
What would happen if Earth stopped spinning? https://www.astronomy.com/science/what-would-happen-if-earth-stopped-spinning/
What would happen if the Earth stopped rotating? https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/greatmomentsinscience/what-would-happen-if-the-earth-stopped-rotating/8180664#
Das Erdmagnetfeld: Ein riesiger Dynamo. https://www.esa.int/Space_in_Member_States/Germany/Das_Erdmagnetfeld_Ein_riesiger_Dynamo
Everywhere You Look, Weird Things in the Sky
This piece is based on our video: "The Black Hole That Kills Galaxies – Quasars"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-quasars/
The Role of Our Diet in Climate Change
This piece is based on our video: "Is Meat Really That Bad?"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-climate-meat/
Hard to Believe
Emperor Penguin: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/facts/emperor-penguin
Polar Bear: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/facts/polar-bear
Deadly Supernova
Animated Fact
This piece was created based on personal conversations with Prof. M. Caplan.
Zombie City
This piece is based on our video "The Reason Why Cancer is so Hard to Beat"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-cancer-city/
What Does The Moon Smell Like?
Animated Fact
Overview of lunar dust toxicity risk: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41526-022-00244-1 m
The toxic side of the Moon: https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/The_toxic_side_of_the_Moon
The Mysterious Smell of Moon Dust: https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2006/30jan_smellofmoondust#:~:text=Although%20it%20happens%20too%20slowly,Moondust%20smells%20like%20burnt%20gunpowder
How to Time Travel Without Breaking Reality
Animated Fact
Can we time travel? A theoretical physicist provides some answers: https://newsroom.carleton.ca/story/can-we-time-travel/#:~:text=Time%20travel%20also%20violates%20the,you%20cannot%20unscramble%20an%20egg
Time Travel: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/time-travel/
Where Do Space, Time and Gravity Come From? https://www.quantamagazine.org/where-do-space-time-and-gravity-come-from-20220504/
Elliott H. Lieb, Jakob Yngvason, The physics and mathematics of the second law of thermodynamics, Physics Reports, 310, 1, 1999, 1-96,
Lawrence H. Ford, Thomas A. Roman, Negative Energy, Wormholes and Warp Drive, Scientific American. 282, 1, 2000, 46-53
Tipler Cylinder: https://www.andersoninstitute.com/tipler-cylinder.html
Lewis, D., The Paradoxes of Time Travel, Science Fiction and Philosophy, S. Schneider (Ed.), 2016 doi: 10.1002/9781118922590.ch26
Why Does Humanity Exist NOW?
This piece is based on our video "Why Aliens Might Already Be On Their Way To Us"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-grabby-aliens/
The Sun's Secret Weapon
Animated Fact
Coronal Mass Ejections: https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/phenomena/coronal-mass-ejections
NASA: Understanding the Magnetic Sun: https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2016/understanding-the-magnetic-sun
Temperature and Density: https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/products/real-time-solar-wind
Lava Temperature: https://www.britannica.com/science/lava-volcanic-ejecta
Speed: https://sci.esa.int/web/ulysses/-/42902-solar-wind-speeds
The Black Holes That Kill Galaxies
This piece is based on our video "The Black Hole That Kills Galaxies"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-quasars/
Underrated Body Parts That Keep You Alive Part IV: The Vestibular Nerve
Animated Fact
How does our sense of balance work? https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279394/#:~:text=The%20ear%20is%20a%20sensory,the%20utricle%20and%20the%20saccule
The physiology of balance: vestibular function
https://www.britannica.com/science/ear/The-physiology-of-balance-vestibular-function
What Happens When You Make Earth Twice as Large?
Animated Fact
Pal, A. (2018): What If The Earth Were Twice As Big?
https://medium.com/scientifical/what-if-the-earth-were-twice-as-big-c2284ebf503f
The thought experiment: What if the Earth doubled in size?
https://www.sciencefocus.com/planet-earth/what-if-the-earth-doubled-in-size/
Köchel, P. (2018): What if Earth Was Twice as Big? https://insh.world/science/earth-double-size/
Emily R. Morey-Holton (2003): 9 - The impact of gravity on life. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780125986557500367
Strutiski, C. (2016): The Lilliput Effect – a response of life to increasing gravity?https://www.dinox.org/publications/Strutinski2016_Lilliput_Effect.pdf
POV: You're Being Attacked By Slaver Ants
This piece is based on our video "The Horror of the Slaver Ants"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-slaver-ants/
Space Without Spacesuit
Animated Fact
Kwan, J. (2021): What would happen to the human body in the vacuum of space?https://www.livescience.com/human-body-no-spacesuit
Starr, M. (2014): What happens to the unprotected human body in space? https://www.cnet.com/culture/what-happens-to-the-unprotected-human-body-in-space/
The Human Body in Space: Distinguishing Fact From Fiction: https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2013/space-human-body/
Roth, E.M. (1968): Rapid (Explosive) Decompression Emergencies in Pressure-Suited Subjects. NASA CR-1223. NASA Contract Rep NASA CR., Nov: 1-125.
Shayler D.J. (2000): Disasters and Accidents in Manned Spaceflight, Springer-Praxis Books in Astronomy and Space Science.
Wormholes III: How to Create a Manmade Wormhole
This piece is based on our video: "Wormholes Explained – Breaking Spacetime"
Morris, M. et. al. (1988): Wormholes, Time Machines, and the Weak Energy Condition. https://authors.library.caltech.edu/9262/1/MORprl88.pdf
Humans Can Breathe Liquids!
Animated Fact
Norris, M. K. et. al. (1994): Liquid ventilation: It's not science fiction anymore. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7780839/
Wolfson, M. R. & Shaffer, T. H. (2005): Pulmonary applications of perfluorochemical liquids: Ventilation and beyond. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1526054205000278?via%3Dihub
Knight, H. (2010): Divers could breathe deep with liquid-filled lungs. https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20827865-900-divers-could-breathe-deep-with-liquid-filled-lungs/
Sarkar, S. et. al. (2014): Liquid ventilation. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4258983/
Underrated Body Parts That Keep You Alive Part III: The Spleen
Animated Fact
Most of the time she’s busy recycling your blood, sorting out deformed and dead cells and only letting the healthy ones through: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-47385-7_2
When serious infections are trying to raid the body, spleen helps knock them out: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-47385-7_2
And if lots of blood is lost due to an accident, she’ll quickly release the reserves she’s got stored:
https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/jappl.2001.90.4.1623
But if, for some reason, spleen has to go into early retirement, other factory hands jump in to take over (liver, lymph system) and the factory keeps running, a little less safe against outside invaders than before:
https://www.livescience.com/44725-spleen.html
Spleen’s workplace is to the left of your stomach below your rib cage: https://www.livescience.com/44725-spleen.html
Cancer – What Is It?
This piece is based on our video "Your Body Killed Cancer 5 Minutes Ago"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-cancervsimmune/
How Many Friends Can You Handle (According to Science)?
Animated Fact
Are Your Friends More Popular Than You Are?
Animated Fact
Easy explanation by NYTimes:
https://archive.nytimes.com/opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/09/17/friends-you-can-count-on/
Proofs of different Friendship Paradox claims:
https://www.cse.iitb.ac.in/~soumen/doc/2021_Friends/FriendsOfFriends.pdf
Facebook study on Friendship paradoxes:
https://arxiv.org/pdf/1111.4503.pdf
Happiness Paradox:
How Your Body Fights Against Cancer
This piece is based on our video "Your Body Killed Cancer 5 Minutes Ago"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-cancervsimmune/
How to Make a Kurzgesagt Video (In 1200 Hours)
This piece is based on our video "How to Make a Kurzgesagt Video in 1200 Hours"
Underrated Body Parts That Keep You Alive Part II: Tonsils
Animated Fact
Tonsils Overview: https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/23459-tonsils
Kato, A. et. al. (2014): B lymphocyte lineage cells and the respiratory system. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3628816/
Earth as a Cube – What Would It Look Like?
Animated Fact
What if Earth were a Cube - ScienceABC
Chappell, J. et. al. (2012): The Gravity Field of a Cube. https://thescipub.com/pdf/pisp.2012.50.57.pdf
Berezovsky, J.: If the Earth was a cube, how would gravity be different? https://www.quora.com/If-the-earth-was-a-cube-how-would-gravity-be-different/answer/Jesse-Berezovsky?share=294ba93f&srid=4v6p
Own calculations:
Oceans: Base radius of an ocean-lake: 1100 km, depth at center of the faces: 120 km
https://www.wolframalpha.com/input?i=Volume+of+spherical+cap+with+base+radius+1100+and+height+120
2. "Like climbing a mountain that is 3000 km high"
Take the base radius of the ocean of 1100 km and a cube side length of L = 10,200 km. Then from coast to edge we would have minimal distance of
10,200/2-1100 km = 4000 km
To a corner we would have minimal distance
√2*10,200 km /2 -1100 km ≈ 6112 km
Walking to the edge would than at least be like climbing a mountain with height h, where
h_e = (4000^2-(4000/√2)^2))^(½) = 2828 km
Or when going to the corner at least a mountain with height:
h_c = (6112^2 - (6112/√2)^2))^(½) = 4322 km
Why Are We Doing kurzgesagt?
This piece is based on our video: "How to Make Money on Youtube with 20M Subs"
A detailed article on how we research our videos can be found here: https://medium.com/@Kurzgesagt/how-research-and-factchecking-work-at-kurzgesagt-f5b239188255
How Do Lasers Work?
Animated Fact
Priniciple of a Laser (German): https://www.vitavonni.de/facharbeit/Prinzip_Lasers.html
Physics 2000 on web-archive. Subsection about Lasers: https://web.archive.org/web/20150120033349/http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/index.pl?Type=TOC
Who invented the laser?
POV: You're on Your Way Back From the Edge of the Observable Universe
This piece is based on our video: "You Are Not Where You Think You"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-jiggle-of-existence
Magnetic Pole Shift – A Doomsday Scenario?
Animated Fact
Earth's magnetic poles could start to flip. What happens then? https://ec.europa.eu/research-and-innovation/en/horizon-magazine/earths-magnetic-poles-could-start-flip-what-happens-then
Flip Flop. Why variations in Earth's magnetic field aren't causing today's climate change: https://climate.nasa.gov/ask-nasa-climate/3104/flip-flop-why-variations-in-earths-magnetic-field-arent-causing-todays-climate-change/
The Earth's magnetic poles (probably) aren't about to flip, scientists say:
Recurrent ancient geomagnetic field anomalies shed light on future evolution of the South Atlantic Anomaly: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2200749119
Portugal's War on Drugs
This piece is based on our video: "3 Arguments Why Marijuana Should Stay Illegal Reviewed"
Sydow, K. et. al. (2002): What predicts incident use of cannabis and progression to abuse and dependence?: A 4-year prospective examination of risk factors in a community sample of adolescence and young adults. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376871602001023
Portugal's radical drugs policy is working. Why hasn't the wolrd copied it? https://www.theguardian.com/news/2017/dec/05/portugals-radical-drugs-policy-is-working-why-hasnt-the-world-copied-it
Decrease in regular consuption: https://www.drugpolicyfacts.org/region/portugal
Underrated Body Parts That Keep You Alive Part I: Pancreas
Animated Fact
Pancreas Overview: Krebsgesellschaft.de
Pancreatic Cancer Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment: https://www.rxlist.com/pancreatic_cancer_slideshow/article.htm
Slack, J.M.W. (1995). Developmental biology of the pancreas. https://cob.silverchair-cdn.com/cob/content_public/journal/dev/121/6/10.1242_dev.121.6.1569/1/1569.pdf?Expires=1687765182&Signature=FSiVbQbT9xSkynJ7UwUSMJjsL2lo0qqdQJPLcnm5Tk1sO-8Z9eN-VlULLRTF-k2vE7iIomXl4eaUE58x~ksfOr7h-yWWw-B3zKR~Kr14xN~gg0ZJSHaSFg5cxpphOaZWpS68frYKlAL1D28ICmlWbZ1yeb~SpcNwD9pvm2lmlXedg52~er0RKDW5u41LhnwWvNA0zf0LthGhp1QycQZ33wWKoL7~4KZW4l50GDNvYDGo~fs~ajHNyZMRwONL08V7bDNxxdB-kOYMkB7~rk9RSnaiWqATdd1JHYhp3q-SSMtf-fC3gU8-NRAv2WYxrbTdhAwvw55Z1j8GDxOBJtjAgA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAIE5G5CRDK6RD3PGA
Wormholes II: Very Old String Theory Wormholes
This piece is based on our video: "Wormholes Explained – Breaking Spacetime"
Morris, M. et. al. (1988): Wormholes, Time Machines, and the Weak Energy Condition. https://authors.library.caltech.edu/9262/1/MORprl88.pdf
How Tiny Can a Black Hole Be?
Animated Fact
This piece was created based on personal conversations with Prof. M. Caplan.
Aliens Might Already Be on Their Way to Us
This piece is based on our video: "Why Aliens Might Already Be on Their Way to Us"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-grabby-aliens/
POV: You're the Vice President and Aliens Made Contact
Animated Fact
Shanks, G. D. (2016). Lethality of First Contact Dysentery Epidemics on Pacific Islands.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4973171/
Baum, S. D. et. al. (2011). Would Contact with Extraterrestrials Benefit or Harm Humanity? A Scenario Analysis.
https://arxiv.org/pdf/1104.4462.pdf
Holmes, B. (2013). How many uncontacted tribes are left in the world?
https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn24090-how-many-uncontacted-tribes-are-left-in-the-world/
Gilster, P. (2015). The Prime Directive – A Real World Case.
https://www.centauri-dreams.org/2015/08/28/the-prime-directive-a-real-world-case/
Let's Spend the Vacation at the Lake!
This piece is based on our video "The Most Horrible Parasite: Brain Eating Amoeba"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-brain-eater/
The Best Way to Train Your Immune System
This piece is based on our video "The Best Way to Boost Your Immune System (With Science!)"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-whatdoesntkillyoumakes/
How to Perfectly Cut a Sandwich – With Science
Animated Fact
Beyer, W. A.; Zardecki, A. (2004). The Early History of the Ham Sandwich Theorem. https://zenodo.org/record/1235195#.Y8Fv1uzMJeg
Smith, W. D.; Wormald, N. C. (2020). Geometric separator theorems and applications. https://users.monash.edu.au/~nwormald/papers/geomsep.pdf
Su, Francis E., et al. “Ham Sandwich Theorem.” Math Fun Facts. https://www.math.hmc.edu/funfacts
When you think our Sun is big but these exist...
This piece is based on our video: "The Largest Star in the Universe – Size Comparison"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sourceslargeststar
Behind the Scenes: Our Story, How we Make Money, and our Values
This piece is based on our video: "How to Make Money on YouTube with 20M Subs"
A detailed article on how we research our videos can be found here: https://medium.com/@Kurzgesagt/how-research-and-factchecking-work-at-kurzgesagt-f5b239188255
Why is the Ocean Salty and Rivers are not?
Animated Fact
Why is the ocean salty, but rivers flowing into it are not? https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/riversnotsalty.html#:~:text=About%20the%20same%20tonnage%20of,is%20no%20longer%20getting%20saltier
Why is the ocean salty? https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/why-ocean-salty
What was There Before the Big Bang?
Fully Developed Story
The Origins of the Universe: The Big Bang: https://www.ctc.cam.ac.uk/outreach/origins/big_bang_five.php
What existed before the Big Bang? https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20220105-what-existed-before-the-big-bang
Who Are You?
Garwood, R. & Edgecombe, G. (2011). Early Terrestrial Animals, Evolution, and Uncertainty. https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-011-0357-y
Millipede from Scotland is world's oldest known land animal: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-science-millipede-idUSKBN2360RD
POV: You Notice a Bright New Star
This piece is based on our video: "What if Earth Got Kicked Out of the Solar System? Rogue Earth"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sourcesrogueearth
Guided Tour Through the Solar System: The Sun
Animated Fact
This piece was created based on personal conversations with Prof. M. Caplan.
The Beautiful Language of Life
This piece is based on our video: "The Most Complex Language in the World"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-impossible-machines/
Guided Tour Through the Solar System: Minor Members
Animated Fact
Number of small objects: 10 trillion m-to-km sized asteroids in the Main Belt
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0031-8949/2008/T130/014027
100 billion to 1 trillion comets larger than 2 km in the Oort cloud: https://www.lpi.usra.edu/books/CometsII/7031.pdf
10,000 bodies of 100 km in size in the Oort cloud, with a power law of roughly Number = radius^-4. It matches the previous paper (440 billion for 2 km) so leads us to estimate a tremendous 10^4 x 10^20 = 10^24 objects larger than 1m in the Oort cloud. https://www.lpi.usra.edu/books/ssbn2008/7031.pdf
Oort cloud stretches into interstellar space: https://space-facts.com/oort-cloud/
67P asteroid dust with 1 Pa strength: https://www.aanda.org/component/article?access=doi&doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201732155
Chariklo rings: https://sservi.nasa.gov/articles/first-ever-asteroid-with-rings/
Psyche worth:
Blue Phaeton: https://www.space.com/asteroid-phaethon-blue-because-of-sunlight
Arrokoth is the reddest: https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/solar-system/kuiper-belt/arrokoth-2014-mu69/overview/
Comet C/2014 Q2 Lovejoy’s green glow: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1500863
Guided Tour Through the Solar System: Pluto
Animated Fact
Methane frost on Pluto: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-18845-3
Pluto size and orbit: https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/
The Western portion of Tombaugh Regio (Sputnik Planitia) is 870,000 km2. https://websites.pmc.ucsc.edu/~fnimmo/website/White_Pluto.pdf
Pluto underground ocean: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2016GL070694
Cryovolcanoes: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-29056-3
Tombaugh Regio atmospheric circulation: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2019JE006120
Cooking a Chicken with a Particle Accelerator
Fully Developed Story
This piece was created based on personal conversations with Prof. M. Caplan.
Wormholes I: Einstein-Rosen-Bridges
This piece is based on our video: "Wormholes Explained – Breaking Spacetime"
Morris, M. et. al. (1988): Wormholes, Time Machines, and the Weak Energy Condition. https://authors.library.caltech.edu/9262/1/MORprl88.pdf
What Doesn't Kill You Makes You WEAKER
This piece is based on our video: "The Best Way to Boost Your Immune System (With Science)"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-whatdoesntkillyoumakes/
The Ultimate Fight
Fully Developed Story
Resilience of tardigrades:
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-05796-x
8 Reasons tardigrades are the weirdest, most resilient animals:
https://www.inverse.com/science/tardigrades-weirdest-most-resilient-animals-extreme-life/amp
Tardigrade waking up after 30 years
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0011224015300134?via%3Dihub
General info:
https://serc.carleton.edu/microbelife/topics/tardigrade/index.html
Tardigrade walking:
Movies are at the bottom of the page https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2107289118
A marine species https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NKYVpUM1mpQ
Muscles are colored https://youtu.be/33DF5IN2f8A?t=168
Tardigrade footage: https://youtu.be/kux1j1ccsgg
Image gallery:
https://www.inaturalist.org/observations?taxon_id=124337
Different body morphologies:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357243465_The_tardigrade_cuticle
Radiation tolerance:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6770827/
Thermotolerance:
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-56965-z
In the active state: thy start dying around 37 Cdeg and not survive >40 Cdeg
In the anhydrated tun state: they will all die after an hour of exposure to 85 Cdeg. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33014266/
Tardigrade walking speed:
https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2107289118
They will survive extreme astrophysical events
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-05796-x#Abs1
Freezing tardigrades: https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/212/6/802/19026/Freeze-tolerance-supercooling-points-and-ice
How does the tun form: https://sun.iwu.edu/~tardisdp/tardigrade_facts.html
Surviving high pressure: https://sci-hub.wf/10.1038/27576
Tardigrades sent to space: https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0960982208008051?token=F249807C58F67A082949C4A82FE57F59212FCA7FDC4CA51C4E15808B6683A9FAE1D587570CE550F8E852FA69EA5E6F5D&originRegion=eu-west-1&originCreation=20221130131639
Gamma ray tolerance:
https://sci-hub.wf/10.1080/09553000600972956
https://sci-hub.wf/10.1080/09553000500368453
Ducks can dive up to 60 meters (200 feet):
https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Long-tailed_Duck/overview#
Ducks survive up to 2 weeks without food:
https://poultryace.com/how-long-can-ducks-go-without-food-water/
Terraforming Mars With Lasers
This piece is based on our video: "How to Terraform Mars – WITH LASERS"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-mars-terraforming
How Are There Galaxies Receeding Faster Than Light?
Reaction to user question
Distance at which universe expansion add more than one lightyear: Solve 1 ≤ 0.000000007% * x
How Black Hole Stars Are Formed
This piece is based on our video: "Black Hole Star – The Star That Shouldn't Exist"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-black-hole-star
Dino Calendar 7: Therizinosaurus
Animated Fact
Overview for years/size and diet facts: https://www.geol.umd.edu/~tholtz/dinoappendix/HoltzappendixWinter2011.pdf
Morphological and functional diversity in therizinosaur claws and the implications for theropod claw evolution:
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2014.0497
The Surprisingly Strong Arms of the Therizinosaur Dinosaurs: https://aapt.scitation.org/doi/abs/10.1119/1.5055323
Choose your Character: Immune Cell Edition
This piece is based on our videos "How the Immune System ACTUALLY Works – IMMUNE"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-immunesystemexplained/
Are We Alone in the Universe?
Fully Developed Story
Definitions of life:
https://www.britannica.com/science/life
Life in our Past:
Ancient Aliens: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-earthaliens/
What Dinosaurs Actually Looked Like: Sources: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-mysteries-of-the-past/
Life in Space:
European Space Agency: The Search for Life. https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/COROT/The_search_for_life
NASA Exoplanet Exploration: The Search for Life.
https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/search-for-life/can-we-find-life/
NASA Exoplanet Exploration: Other Skies, Other Suns: The Search for Exoplanet Atmospheres. https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/news/1522/other-skies-other-suns-the-search-for-exoplanet-atmospheres/
MIT Technology Review: No one agrees what it means for a planet to be "habitable". https://www.technologyreview.com/2019/10/02/405/no-one-agrees-what-it-means-for-a-planet-to-be-habitable/
5292 exoplanets confirmed: http://exoplanet.eu/catalog/
ca 400 exoplanets each year: https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/exoplanetplots/
Scientific sources:
Whitmire, D. & Wright, D. (1980). Nuclear waste spectrum as evidence of technological extraterrestrial civilizations. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0019103580902535
Tasker, E. et.al. (2017). The language of exoplanet ranking metrics needs to change. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1708.01363.pdf
You Are Cells. But What Are They?
This piece is based on our video "The Most Complex Language in the World"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-impossible-machines/
How Many Moons Can Earth Handle?
Satyal, Suman; Quarles, Billy and Rosario-Franco, Marialis. (2022): Moon-packing around an Earth-mass Planet. https://arxiv.org/pdf/2208.03604.pdf
How many moons could you fit in the sky? https://www.sciencealert.com/how-many-moons-could-you-fit-in-the-sky-the-answer-may-surprise-you
What if there were more moons? http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/about-us/37-our-solar-system/the-moon/the-moon-and-the-earth/38-what-would-happen-if-earth-had-more-than-one-moon-intermediate
Terraform Mars With Me (Part 2)
This piece is based on our video: "How To Terraform Mars – WITH LASERS"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-mars-terraforming
Duck News: Everything is Awful
NASA's Mars rover sends out lonely farewell photo: https://www.chron.com/news/space/article/nasa-mars-lander-last-message-17666295.php
Terraform Mars With Me (Part 1)
This piece is based on our video: "Building a Marsbase is a Horrible Idea: Let's do it!"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sourcesmars/
POV: You Encounter a Black Hole
This piece is based on our video: "What if You Fall Into a Black Hole?"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-black-holes/
The James Webb Space Telescope
Fully Developed Story
It’s able to … 13 billion years
https://webb.nasa.gov/content/science/firstLight.html
It took more than 20 years and 10 billion dollars …
https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-spent-billions-launching-james-webb-space-telescope-2022-3
Its 18 mirrors and four instruments collect light in the infrared spectrum.
https://webb.nasa.gov/content/about/faqs/facts.html
Because the universe is expanding, … invisible to the eye.
https://webb.nasa.gov/content/science/firstLight.html
Infrared also passes through dust and gas more easily than visible light. This allows Webb to see objects up to 100 times fainter …
https://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/hubble-vs-webb-on-the-shoulders-of-a-giant
It could even detect the heat signature of a bumblebee as far away as the Earth is from the Moon.
https://www.cbsnews.com/news/james-webb-space-telescope-fun-facts/
JWST needs to be kept extremely cold, otherwise its own heat radiation would distort its view…
https://webb.nasa.gov/content/observatory/sunshield.html
Webb orbits the sun near the Lagrange L2 point, about 1,5 million km from Earth.
https://webb.nasa.gov/content/about/orbit.html
It has taken beautiful images of the dying “Southern Ring Nebula” and the “cosmic delivery room” inside the Carina nebula, which shows hundreds of stars giving birth.
https://www.mpg.de/18947932/james-webb-telescope-first-images
Surprisingly, … bigger
Nature: Four revelations from the Webb telescope about distant galaxies
… water vapor.
On the gas giant WASP-39b, Webb has found the first clear evidence of CO2 on a planet outside the solar system.
https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2022/nasa-s-webb-detects-carbon-dioxide-in-exoplanet-atmosphere
These planets are not like Earth because they are either much bigger or hotter.
The technology of Webb is not advanced enough to find Earth-like planets.
Frazer Cain, Astronomy Journalist: “The coronagraph onboard James Webb is able to dim the light from so much that it’s able to see an image of the [very big, Jupiter-like Exoplanet WASP-96b] … To be able to see an Earth-like world orbiting around a Sun-like star at around the distance of the Earth, you need to dim the light by about a factor of [1,000 more than what JWST can today.]” (12:19-12:50)
19 years of near full-time operation
https://www.space.com/james-webb-space-telescope-fuel-20-years
Full time (unlike hubble, which only operates part time):
“Near” full time because sometimes things need to be repaired:
https://www.independent.co.uk/space/webb-telescope-accuracy-calibration-b2195671.html
Guided Tour Through The Solar System: Neptune
Animated Fact
Twin planets:
Neptune is warmer at all depths below the 1 bar level:
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11214-020-00660-3
Neptune orbit:
https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/neptunefact.html
Wind speed:
Colour due to wind differences:
https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022JE007189
Diamond rain:
Iron boiling temperature:
https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/26/iron
Triton geysers:
Let's Visit the Stellar Zoo
Fully Developed Story
This piece was created based on personal conversations with Prof. M. Caplan.
Terraform Venus With Me
This piece is based on our video "How To Terraform Venus (Quickly)".
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-terraform-venus/
Colonize the Moon With Me
This piece is based on our video "How We Could Build a Moon Base TODAY – Space Colonization 1"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://www.liebertpub.com/toc/space/4/1
Let's Cook a Galaxy
Animated Fact
This piece was created based on personal conversations with Prof. M. Caplan.
Choose Your Character: Ant Edition
Weaver Ants
https://sites.google.com/view/sourcesweaverants
Army Ants
https://sites.google.com/view/sources-world-war-ants/
Argentine Ants
https://sites.google.com/view/sources-argentine-ants
Slaver Ants
The Most Extreme Explosion in the Universe
This piece is based on our video "The Most Extreme Explosion in the Universe".
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-supernovadeath
Where are the Aliens? The Dark Forest Theory
This piece is based on our video "Why We Should NOT Look For Aliens – The Dark Forest".
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-darkforest/
Atlantis Existed!
Fully Developed Story
Overview:
Animals:
Last glacial maximum:
Europe's Lost World: The Rediscovery of Doggerland.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259639459_Europe's_Lost_World_The_Rediscovery_of_Doggerland
North Sea Archaeologies.
Is There Anything Smaller than a Planck Length?
Reaction to Question
Planck length, minimal length?
The Planck length as a minimal length
http://backreaction.blogspot.com/2012/01/planck-length-as-minimal-length.html
Modern Warfare: Polyergus Ant Edition
This piece is based on our video "The Horror of the Slaver Ant".
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-slaver-ants/
POV: You Encounter a Real Monster
This piece is based on our video "The Deadliest Being on Planet Earth – The Bacteriophage"
Lost Galaxies
Animated Fact
Cosmic horizons:
https://explainingscience.org/2021/04/30/cosmic-horizons/
Davis, Tamara & Lineweaver, Charles (2003). Expanding Confusion: common misconceptions of cosmological horizons and the superluminal expansion of the Universe.
https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0310808
Faster than speed of light recession:
https://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0011070v2.pdf
Redshift as a doppler effect:
https://lco.global/spacebook/light/redshift/
Galaxies will eventually disappear:
Clearing up misconceptions about the cosmic horizon:
12,022 In A Nutshell
This piece is based on the videos we released on our main YouTube channel in 12,022.
The detailed sources can be found here:
What happens if the Moon crashes into Earth?
https://sites.google.com/view/sources-moon-crash/
Are there lost alien civilizations in our past?
https://sites.google.com/view/sources-earthaliens/
We WILL fix climate change!
https://sites.google.com/view/sources-can-we-fix-climate/
The most horrible parasite: Brain eating amoeba
https://sites.google.com/view/sources-brain-eater/
You are not where you think you are
https://sites.google.com/view/sources-jiggle-of-existence
Change your life – one tiny step at a time
https://sites.google.com/view/sources-change/
The last human – a glimpse into the far future
https://sites.google.com/view/sources-last-human/
The deadliest virus on Earth
https://sites.google.com/view/sources-rabies/
Is civilization on the brink of collapse?
https://sites.google.com/view/sources-civilization-collapse/
Why you are lonely and how to make friends
https://sites.google.com/view/sources-friendship/
Let's travel to the most extreme place in the universe
https://sites.google.com/view/sources-smallest-thing/
What happens if a supervolcano blows up?
https://sites.google.com/view/sources-supervolcanoes/
Why don't we shoot nuclear waste into space?
https://sites.google.com/view/sources-nuclearwaste/
The most extreme explosion in the universe
https://sites.google.com/view/sources-supernovadeath
The horror of the slaver ants
https://sites.google.com/view/sources-slaver-ants/
Black holes star – the star that shouldn't exist
Year in Review Space Edition
Animated Fact
James Webb Space Telescope:
DART Mission:
Exoplanets discovered:
Sagittarius A* picture:
Are You Human or a Machine?
Fully Developed Story
Central papers:
A. Turing (1950)
https://academic.oup.com/mind/article/LIX/236/433/986238
Turing Test: 50 years later
ELIZA (perhaps) the first program to pass?:
ELIZA A Computer Program For the Study of Natural Language Communication Between Man And Machine
https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/365153.365168
The Social and Interactional Dimensions of Human-Computer Interfaces, p.112 https://www.google.de/books/edition/The_Social_and_Interactional_Dimensions/3Yn6dc2avfcC?hl=de&gbpv=1&dq=isbn:9780521453028&printsec=frontcover
Jeopardy vs Watson:
https://web.archive.org/web/20110522000925/http://www.jeopardy.com/news/IBMchallenge.php
Turing’s misunderstood imitation game and IBM’s Watson success
https://www.academia.edu/474617
Blog post about AI and ART
http://artent.net/2015/03/27/art-and-artificial-intelligence-by-g-w-smith/
Chinese Room (argument against consciousness in machines running a program?):
Searle thought experiment
https://home.csulb.edu/~cwallis/382/readings/482/searle.minds.brains.programs.bbs.1980.pdf
Short story
http://q-bits.org/images/Dneprov.pdf
Learning Machines:
How to measure Machine Intelligence (modern approaches)
Metrics for Machine Intelligence:
https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7390/9/6/681/htm
Measuring machine intelligence:
https://arxiv.org/pdf/0712.3329.pdf
AI in medical consultation will fail the Turing Test:
Nordic Seagulls:
Standard Interpretation:
Singularity is near
News and other links:
Long Bet: https://longbets.org/1/
ELIZA Effect: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELIZA_effect
Dino Calendar 6: Pteranodon
Animated Fact
Witton, Marc Paul (2010): Pteranodon and beyond: The history of giant pterosaurs from 1870 onwards. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258391482_Pteranodon_and_beyond_The_history_of_giant_pterosaurs_from_1870_onwards
Taxonomy and systematics of the Late Cretaceous pterosaur Pteranodon (Pterosauria, Pterodactyloidea). https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/4467188#page/6/mode/1up
On the size and flight diversity of giant Pterosaurs, the use of birds and Pterosaur analogues and comments on pterosaur flightlessness. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0013982
Evolution Stories III: Mitochondria
Animated Fact
Origin of Mitochondria:
Endosymbiosis:
https://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1019&context=lynn_margulis
When and how long?
General Reference:
https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/mitochondria-14053590/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/endosymbiosis
How they work:
How well they work:
The Largest Stars to Have Ever Existed?
This piece is based on our video: "Black Hole Star – The Star That Shouldn't Exist"
Begelman, Mitchell C. et al. (2006): “Formation of supermassive black holes by direct collapse in pre-galactic haloes”, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Volume 370, Issue 1. https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/370/1/289/1026607
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-black-hole-star
Guided Tour Through The Solar System: Uranus
Animated Fact
Uranus tilt, 13 rings, 27 moons:
https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/uranus/in-depth/
Uranus orbit:
https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/
Ancient impact:
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/04/200406092843.htm
Retrograde and inclined moons:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus#List
42 years per sunrise:
https://www.weather.gov/fsd/uranus
“Unusual transparency” p.6:
Gases in atmosphere:
https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/what-uranus-cloud-tops-have-in-common-with-rotten-eggs
How Can We Terraform Mars Quickly?
This piece is based on our video: "How To Terraform Mars – WITH LASERS"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-mars-terraforming
You're at the Center of Your Own Universe
This piece is based on our video: "You Are Not Where You Think You Are"
NASA (2016). Hubble Reveals Observable Universe Contains 10 Times More Galaxies Than Previously Thought. https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2016/hubble-reveals-observable-universe-contains-10-times-more-galaxies-than-previously-thought
ESA (2015). Barycentric balls Figure A1. https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2015/05/P07_Barycentric_balls_Figure_A1
Moon Fact Sheet, NASA. https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/moonfact.html
Laetitia Rodet (2021). How much does the Earth "wobble" in its orbit due to the Moon's gravity? http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/the-universe/galaxies/37-our-solar-system/the-moon/the-moon-and-the-earth/1101-how-much-does-the-earth-wobble-on-its-orbit-due-to-the-moon-s-gravity-intermediate
Alison Klesman (2020). In which direction does the Sun move through the Milky Way? https://astronomy.com/magazine/ask-astro/2020/07/in-which-direction-does-the-sun-move-through-the-milky-way
Wikimedia Commons (2017). Motion of Sun, Earth and Moon around the Milky Way. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg
Ethan Siegel (2019). Earth Is Drifting Away From The Sun, And So Are All The Planets. https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2018/08/30/our-motion-through-space-isnt-a-vortex-but-something-far-more-interesting/?sh=3adc623a7ec2
The Solar System Is Not A Vortex, But It Might As Well Be (retrieved 19 Jan 2022). http://www.rhysy.net/solar-system-vortex.html
Murchikova, E.M. et al. (2019). A cool accretion disk around the Galactic Centre black hole. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1242-z
Messier 33 (The Triangulum Galaxy), NASA Hubble’s Messier Catalog (2019). https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2019/messier-33-the-triangulum-galaxy
Hubble Shows Us the Future, NASA Solar System and Beyond (2021). https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/hubble-shows-us-the-future
Michael S. Petersen and Jorge Peñarrubia (2021). Detection of the Milky Way reflex motion due to the Large Magellanic Cloud infall. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-020-01254-3
Erkal D. et al. (2019). The total mass of the Large Magellanic Cloud from its perturbation on the Orphan stream. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1812.08192.pdf
Eugene Vasiliev, Vasily Belokurov, Denis Erkal (2020). Tango for three: Sagittarius, LMC, and the Milky Way. https://arxiv.org/abs/2009.10726
Tully et al. (2014). The Laniakea supercluster of galaxies. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1409.0880.pdf
R. Brent Tully (1987). More about clustering on a scale of 0.1 c. https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/1987ApJ...323....1T
Horvath et al. (2013). The largest structure of the Universe, defined by Gamma-Ray Bursts. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1311.1104.pdf
Wang et al. (2021). Possible observational evidence for cosmic filament spin. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-021-01380-6.pdf
Attack of the Slaver Ants
This piece is based on our video: "The Horror of the Slaver Ants"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-slaver-ants/
Why do Planets Rotate in a Disk?
Reaction to Question
Why do planets orbit in the same direction?https://www.sciencefocus.com/space/why-do-planets-orbit-in-the-same-direction/
Shu et al. (1993). The collapse of clouds and the formation and evolution of stars and disks. https://adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/1993prpl.conf....3S
Pringle, J. E. (1981). Accretion disks in astrophysics. https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.aa.19.090181.001033
Open Access: https://courses.physics.ucsd.edu/2019/Winter/physics116_216/Pringle_%20Accretion%20Disks.pdf
What if our own Planet Launched a Nuclear Attack on us?
Fully Developed Story
National Park Service (2022): Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI). https://www.nps.gov/subjects/volcanoes/volcanic-explosivity-index.htm
#Newhall, C. G. & Self, S. (1982): The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): An Estimate of Explosive Magnitude for Historical Volcanism. Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 87 (C2).
Rampino, M. (2002): Supereruptions as a Threat to Civilizations on Earth-like Planets. Icarus, Vol. 156 (2). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222827939_Supereruptions_as_a_Threat_to_Civilizations_on_Earth-like_Planets
Wärtsilä (retrieved 2022): Ultra large crude carrier HELLESPONT ALHAMBRA. https://www.wartsila.com/encyclopedia/term/ultra-large-crude-carrier-hellespont-alhambra
Bhattacharyya, A. & Hunter, G. (2020): A study of the Damaging Effects of Acoustic Shock Waves from a “Controlled” Explosion on Nearby Buildings. Proceedings of the Institute of Acoustics, Vol. 42 (1) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349647738_A_study_of_the_Damaging_Effects_of_Acoustic_Shock_Waves_from_a_Controlled_Explosion_on_Nearby_Buildings
NOAA (retrieved 2022): Tsunami Event Information Reference #237. https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/tsunami/event-more-info/1142
World Nuclear Weapon Stockpile, Plougshares Fund, 2018. https://www.ploughshares.org/world-nuclear-stockpile-report
United States nuclear forces, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 2018. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00963402.2018.1438219?needAccess=true
A way to calculate the explosive power of an eruption of a given VEI: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226059447_Poisson-distributed_patterns_of_explosive_eruptive_activity
Energy breakdown of volcanic activity: https://repository.dl.itc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/records/33960#/.Y5ChSuzMLDJ
Why do Black Holes Look Like That?
Animated Fact
This piece was created based on personal conversations with Prof. M. Caplan.
Further Reading:
Seeing the Unseeable: http://blackholes.stardate.org/resources/article-seeing-the-unseeable.html
Black Hole Shadows, Photon Rings and Lensing Rings: https://arxiv.org/abs/1906.00873
What is Nuclear Waste?
This piece is based on our video: "Why Don't We Shoot Nuclear Waste Into Space?"
U.S. NRC (2019): Backgrounder on Radioactive Waste. https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/radwaste.html
Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (2021): Low- and intermediate-level radioactive waste. http://nuclearsafety.gc.ca/eng/waste/low-and-intermediate-waste/index.cfm
IAEA (2022): Status and Trends in Spent Fuel and Radioactive Waste Management. IAEA Nuclear Energy Series, No. NW-T-1.14 (Rev. 1) https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/PUB1963_web.pdf
World Nuclear Association (retrieved 2022): What is nuclear waste, and what do we do with it? https://world-nuclear.org/nuclear-essentials/what-is-nuclear-waste-and-what-do-we-do-with-it.aspx
Health Physics Society (2012): Answer to Question #10009 Submitted to "Ask the Experts", Category: Decommissioning and Radioactive Waste Disposal — US High Level Waste Issues (Yucca Mountain). https://hps.org/publicinformation/ate/q10009.html
IAEA (retrieved 2022): Getting to the Core of Radioactive Waste. Managing the by-products of nuclear technologies to protect people and the environment. https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/18/10/radioactivewaste.pdf
IAEA (2021): Nuclear Power Reactors in the World. Reference Data Series No. 2. https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/RDS-2-41_web.pdf
Stimson Center (2020): Spent Nuclear Fuel Storage and Disposal. An examination of spent nuclear fuel storage and disposal around the world. https://www.stimson.org/2020/spent-nuclear-fuel-storage-and-disposal/
IAEA (2022): New IAEA Report Presents Global Overview of Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel Management. https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/new-iaea-report-presents-global-overview-of-radioactive-waste-and-spent-fuel-management
CNBC (2022): SpaceX raises prices for rocket launches and Starlink satellite internet as inflation hits raw materials. https://www.cnbc.com/2022/03/23/spacex-raises-prices-for-launches-and-starlink-due-to-inflation.html
NASASpaceflight.com (2019): SpaceX and Cape Canaveral Return to Action with First Operational Starlink Mission. https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/11/spacex-cape-return-first-operational-starlink-mission/
CSIS (2022): Space Launch to Low Earth Orbit: How Much Does It Cost? https://aerospace.csis.org/data/space-launch-to-low-earth-orbit-how-much-does-it-cost/
GAO (2017): Surplus Missile Motors. Sale Price Drives Potential Effects on DOD and Commercial Launch Providers. https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-17-609.pdf
World Nuclear Association (2022): Economics of Nuclear Power. https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/economic-aspects/economics-of-nuclear-power.aspx
World Nuclear Association (2022): Radioactive Waste – Myths and Realities. https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-wastes-myths-and-realities.aspx
The Most Powerful Explosion in the Universe
This piece is based on our video: "The Most Extreme Explosion in the Universe"
NASA (2018): Sun Fact Sheet. https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/sunfact.html
Branch, D. (2003): Supernovae. In: Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology, Academic Press. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/type-ia-supernovae
Sukhbold, T. & Woosley, S. E. (2016): The Most Luminous Supernovae. The Astrophysical Journal Letters, Vol. 820 (2). https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8205/820/2/L38
NASA (2017): How Many Stars in the Milky Way? https://asd.gsfc.nasa.gov/blueshift/index.php/2015/07/22/how-many-stars-in-the-milky-way/
HubbleWebbESA (2020): Time-Lapse of Supernova in NGC 2525. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hB2QQyEyF5k
ICAN: How destructive are today’s nuclear weapons? (retrieved 2022) https://www.icanw.org/how_destructive_are_today_s_nuclear_weapons
Branch, D. (2003): Supernovae. Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology, Academic Press. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/type-ia-supernovae
Johnson, J. A. (2019): Populating the periodic table: Nucleosynthesis of the elements. Science, Vol. 363. https://www.drkohn.org/uploads/1/4/0/9/14095127/science_-_populating_the_periodic_table_-_nucleosynthesis_of_the_elements_science.aau9540.pdf
Solar Flares – Should We Be Worried?
This piece is based on our video: "Could Solar Storms Destroy Civilization? Solar Flares 6 Coronal Mass Ejections"
The northern lights: https://www.loc.gov/everyday-mysteries/item/what-are-the-northern-lights/
Frequency of extremely energetic solar events: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2012JA017706
Cataclysmic solar superstorms: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/new-studies-warn-of-cataclysmic-solar-superstorms/
New York railroad superstorm: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2019SW002250
Solar storm risk to the North American electric grid: https://www.lloyds.com/news-and-risk-insight/risk-reports/library/natural-environment/solar-storm
What would happen if a solar storm wiped out technology as we know it: https://www.sciencealert.com/here-s-what-would-happen-if-solar-storm-wiped-out-technology-geomagnetic-carrington-event-coronal-mass-ejection
Evolution Stories II: Wings
Animated Fact
Three different mechanisms of flight: https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/flight/origins.html
Flight in vertebrates: https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/flight/enter.html
Origin of insect wings:
Reviews different theories and suggests a new: https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1711128115#:~:text=The%20first%20hypothesis%2C%20called%20the,fly%20(5%E2%80%937).
Recent paper on the origin: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-28624-x
Pterosaurs died in the mass extinction K-event: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5849296/
Animalia overall 1,454,039
Aves (birds): 10,599 _ less than hundred are flightless so it shouldn't change the ratio that much
Chriptera (Bats) 1,449
https://www.catalogueoflife.org/
Flying Insects: 960,445
https://www.onezoom.org/life/@Pterygota=1048707?img=best_any&anim=flight#x-432,y1061,w6.4452
Deep Sea Mining - Great or Horrible Idea?
Fully Developed Story
The rare earth industry: https://academic.oup.com/book/25755/chapter-abstract/193313217?redirectedFrom=fulltext; https://stratcomcoe.org/cuploads/pfiles/senkaku_crisis.pdf
Carbon storage in Plankton: https://www.bristol.ac.uk/news/2022/july/carbon-storage-in-plankton.html
Potential effects of deep seabed mining: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X18306407
How ocean 'pumps' affect climate change: https://www.rochester.edu/newscenter/ocean-pumps-carbon-cycle-climate-change-377692/
The ocean, a carbon pump: https://ocean-climate.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/2.-The-ocean-a-carbon-pump-scientific-fact-sheets-2019.pdf
Overview of seabed mining: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2017.00418/full
A geological model of polymetallic nodule deposits in the clardidon-clipperton fracture zone: https://isa.org.jm/files/files/documents/tstudy6.pdf
Research project that develops a deepsea mining system: https://blue-nodules.eu/
Ocean acidification: https://digitalcommons.law.uw.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1055&context=wjelp
Human health and ocean pollution: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7731724/
An Important Message For Your Life
This piece is based on our video "What Are You Doing With Your Life? The Tail End"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-tailend/
Shooting Nuclear Waste to Space – the Best Idea Ever?
This piece is based on our video "Why Don't we Shoot Nuclear Waste to Space?"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-nuclearwaste/
POV: Gold Apocalypse
This piece is based on our video: "What if the World Turned to Gold? The Gold Apocalypse"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sourcesgoldapocalypse/
Guided Tour Through the Solar System: Saturn
Animated Fact
Saturn Radius/ Earth radius ~10
Saturn orbit/Earth orbit ~10
Density 687 kg/m^3
https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/
Saturn has 53 confirmed moons plus 29 unconfirmed:
https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/saturn/overview/
Ring waves:
https://phys.org/news/2016-08-visualization-saturn.html
Particle average distance:
https://sciencing.com/close-rocks-saturns-rings-13152.html
Km-sized objects:
https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/12482/cassini-sees-objects-blazing-trails-in-saturn-ring/
Ring wobbles due to Saturn interior:
https://arxiv.org/abs/2104.13385
POV: You're the President and a Nuclear Attack is Imminent
Fully Developed Story
This piece was created based on personal conversations with Prof. M. Caplan.
Why is the Night Sky Black?
Reaction to Question
Olbers' Paradox: https://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/GR/olbers.html https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1990IAUS..139....3H/0000003.000.htmlc https://pages.uoregon.edu/imamura/123cs/lecture-5/olbers.html
The universe may be infinite, but it's not infinitely old: https://arxiv.org/pdf/1807.06209.pdf
The light of the furthest galaxies has not had time to reach you: https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/EFEEEFD8D71E59F86DDA82FDF576EFD3/S132335800000607Xa.pdf/expanding-confusion-common-misconceptions-of-cosmological-horizons-and-the-superluminal-expansion-of-the-universe.pdf
The universe had a beginning: https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2019/08/20/why-is-the-sky-dark-at-night/?sh=45e9780c237b
Earth Leaving the Solar System
This piece is based on our video: "What If Earth Got Kicked Out of the Solar System? Rogue Earth"
Francoise Crifo et al. (2010): Towards a new full-sky list of radial velocity standard stars. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/45795023_Towards_a_new_full-sky_list_of_radial_velocity_standard_stars
Raul and Carlos de la Fuente Marcos, Template. (2018): An independent confirmation of the future flyby of Gliese 710 to the solar system using Gaia DR2. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1805.02644.pdf
Gregory Laughlin and Fred C. Adams (2000): The Frozen Earth: Binary Scattering Events and the Fate of the Solar System. https://planetologist.files.wordpress.com/2009/03/laughlin_adams_2000-frozen-earth1.pdf
Dino Calendar Facts: Giraffatitan
Animated Fact
Overview for years/size and diet facts:
https://www.geol.umd.edu/~tholtz/dinoappendix/HoltzappendixWinter2011.pdf
Scientific sources:
Funny non-scientific:
Categorizing Alien Civilizations
This piece is based on our video: "What Do Alien Civilizations Look Like? The Kardashev Scale"
Dino Calendar Facts: Tanystropheus
Animated Fact
Spiekmann, S. et.al. (2020): Aquatic Habits and Niche Partitioning in the Extraordinarily Long-Necked Triassic Reptile Tanystropheus. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982220310174
Riepel, O. et.al. (2010): Tanystropheus cf. T. longobardicus from the early Late Triassic of Guizhou Province, southwestern China. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Zuoyu-Sun/publication/235744894_Tanystropheus_cf_T_longobardicus_from_the_Early_Late_Triassic_of_Guizhou_Province_Southwestern_China/links/56726d3408aecc73dc0c61b4/Tanystropheus-cf-T-longobardicus-from-the-Early-Late-Triassic-of-Guizhou-Province-Southwestern-China.pdf
Non-scientific (german) source: https://www.rnd.de/wissen/giraffenhalssaurier-das-skurille-tanystropheus-verwundert-forscher-jetzt-ist-das-ratsel-des-dinosauriers-gelost-JZDD3B4V2ZCWOQUBBFWRVXZ2IM.html
https://hubblesite.org/contents/media/images/1999/13/791-Image.html?news=true
Guided Tour Through the Solar System: Jupiter's Most Spectacular Moon
Animated Fact
Volcanic plumes rise 200 km above surface:
https://hubblesite.org/contents/media/images/1999/13/791-Image.html?news=true
And as high as 500 km:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103508002054?via%3Dihub
Calderas, lava flow fields, no craters:
https://phys.org/news/2012-03-geologic-jupiter-moon-io-otherworldly.html
Tidal heating source of geological heat:
https://www.britannica.com/place/Io-satellite-of-Jupiter
Equator bulges by 100m:
https://www.usgs.gov/news/volcano-watch-eye-ios-volcanism
Io most volcanic:
https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/jupiter-moons/io/in-depth/
400 volcanoes:
https://www.worldatlas.com/space/the-volcanoes-of-io.html
20x Earth heat flow:
https://www.space.com/16419-io-facts-about-jupiters-volcanic-moon.html
Boösaule Montes 17,500m tall mountain:
https://arstechnica.com/science/2016/05/ios-10-mile-high-mountains-result-from-a-shrinking-crust/
https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/854
Metis:
The Importance of Decisions
This piece is based on our video: "What Are You Doing With Your Life? The Tail End"
Whale Ancestors
Fully Developed Story
How did whales evolve?
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/how-did-whales-evolve-73276956/
Original papers:
Transitional record:
https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-009-0135-2
Supervolcanoes Intro
This piece is based on our video: "What Happens if a Supervolcano Blows Up?"
Anzellini, S. et al. (2013): Melting of Iron at Earth's Inner Core Boundary Based on Fast X-ray Diffraction. Science, Vol. 340 (6131)
Lay, T. et al. (2008): Core–mantle boundary heat flow. Nature Geoscience, Vol. 1
World Nuclear Association (2022): Supply of Uranium
Peterson, B. T. & Depaolo, D. J. (2007): Mass and Composition of the Continental Crust Estimated Using the CRUST2.0 Model. American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2007.
https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007AGUFM.V33A1161P/abstract
Borexino Collaboration (2020): Comprehensive geoneutrino analysis with Borexino. Physical Review D 101
https://journals.aps.org/prd/pdf/10.1103/PhysRevD.101.012009
NASA (2022): Earth. Our Home Planet
https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/earth/in-depth/#otp_structure
Homutová, I. & Blažek, J. (2006): Differences in fruit skin thickness between selected apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) cultivars assessed by histological and sensory methods. Horticultural Science, Vol. 33 (3)
https://www.agriculturejournals.cz/publicFiles/51351.pdf
Kurzgesagt (2019): What If We Detonated All Nuclear Bombs at Once?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JyECrGp-Sw8
Kurzgesagt (2019): Sources – All the bombs.
What Came First: Flowers or Bees?
Reaction to Question
Earliest Pollinator:
https://www.scientificamerican.com/gallery/earliest-pollinator/
Early History of Pollinators and Plants:
https://extension.illinois.edu/blogs/garden-scoop/2020-06-26-early-history-pollinators-and-plants
Review of Angliosperm Radiation:
http://nrm.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1081317/FULLTEXT01
History of Bees:
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-beguiling-history-of-bees-excerpt/
“Abominable Mystery”:
https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3732/ajb.0800150
On early angliosperm-pollinator coevolution:
https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0707989105
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2838258/
First Flowers:
https://plantevolgen.org/Papers/2000/Molecular%20evolution%20of%20flower%20development.pdf
First Bee:
https://www.museumoftheearth.org/bees/evolution-fossil-record
The Volcanic Boom-Meter
This piece is based on our video: "What Happens if a Supervolcano Blows Up?"
National Park Service (2022): Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)
https://www.nps.gov/subjects/volcanoes/volcanic-explosivity-index.htm
Newhall, C. G. & Self, S. (1982): The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI):
An Estimate of Explosive Magnitude for Historical Volcanism. Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 87 (C2).
Rampino, M. (2002): Supereruptions as a Threat to Civilizations on Earth-like Planets. Icarus, Vol. 156 (2)
Wärtsilä (retrieved 2022): Ultra large crude carrier HELLESPONT ALHAMBRA https://www.wartsila.com/encyclopedia/term/ultra-large-crude-carrier-hellespont-alhambra
Global Volcanism Program (2022): Report on Semeru (Indonesia), Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network, Vol. 47 (1)
https://volcano.si.edu/showreport.cfm?doi=10.5479/si.GVP.BGVN202201-263300
Schultze, M. et al. (2010): Introduction of river water as a tool to manage water quality in pit lakes. IMWA Annual Conference 2005
Yuen, D. A. et al. (2022): Under the surface: Pressure-induced planetary-scale waves, volcanic lightning, and gaseous clouds caused by the submarine eruption of Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai volcano. Earthquake Research Advances, Vol. 2 (3)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772467022000227
PBS News Hour (2022): Experts explain why Tonga eruption was so big
https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/experts-explain-why-tonga-eruption-was-so-big
Bhattacharyya, A. & Hunter, G. (2020): A study of the Damaging Effects of Acoustic Shock Waves from a “Controlled” Explosion on Nearby Buildings. Proceedings of the Institute of Acoustics, Vol. 42 (1)
NOAA (retrieved 2022): Tsunami Event Information Reference #237
https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/tsunami/event-more-info/1142
ARRL (retrieved 2022): A Tutorial on the Decibel
Bradley, R. S. (1988): The explosive volcanic eruption signal in northern hemisphere continental temperature records. Climatic Change, Vol. 12 (3)
http://www.geo.umass.edu/faculty/bradley/bradley1988.pdf
NASA (retrieved 2022): Blue Moon
https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2004/07jul_bluemoon/
NASA (2009): The year without a summer. Peering through volcanic veils
https://climate.nasa.gov/ask-nasa-climate/183/the-year-without-a-summer/
Oppenheimer, C. (2003): Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815. Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment, Vol 27 (2)
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1191/0309133303pp379ra
French, B. M. (1998): Traces of Catastrophe. A Handbook of Shock-Metamorphic Effects in Terrestrial Meteorite Impact Structures. LPI Contribution No. 954, Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston, p. 15
https://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/books/CB-954/CB-954.pdf
Encyclopaedia Britannica (2022): Tsar Bomba
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tsar-Bomba
Miller, G. H. et al. (2012): Abrupt onset of the Little Ice Age triggered by volcanism and sustained by sea-ice/ocean feedbacks. Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 39 (2)
https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2011GL050168
McConnell, J. R. et al. (2020): Extreme climate after massive eruption of Alaska’s Okmok volcano in 43 BCE and effects on the late Roman Republic and Ptolemaic Kingdom. PNAS, Vol. 177 (27)
Guided Tour Through the Solar System: Jupiter
Animated Fact
Liquid Metallic Hydrogen conductivity:
https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1707918114
Jupiter mass: 1898 x 10^24 kg
Mass of all other planets: 768.6 x 10^24 kg
Jupiter diameter: 142,984 km
Earth diameter: 12,756 km
https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/
80 moons:
https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/amateur-astronomer-discovers-new-moon-of-jupiter/
Jupiter trojan asteroids: 1 million over 1 km:
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/497571
https://appel.nasa.gov/2021/10/26/pioneering-spacecraft-bound-for-jupiter-trojan-asteroids/
Great Red Spot:
https://www.britannica.com/place/Great-Red-Spot
Jupiter radial composition: 12,000 km solid core, 58,000 km liquid, 1000 km gas = 71,000 km radius total
Liquid fraction: (70^3 - 12^3)/(71^3) = 0.953
About metallic hydrogen:
https://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/5.0002104
Metallic hydrogen state in Jupiter:
Metallic hydrogen role in Jupiter’s magnetic field:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X19305710
9.5 hour rotation:
https://www.psi.edu/epo/resources/inmotion/jupiter_earth
Lightning and mushballs
Most Extreme Place in the Universe Endcard
This piece is based on our video "Let's Travel to The Most Extreme Place in The Universe"
Most Extreme Place in the Universe Intro
This piece is based on our video "Let's Travel to The Most Extreme Place in The Universe"
Conselice, C. J. et al. (2016): THE EVOLUTION OF GALAXY NUMBER DENSITY AT z < 8 AND ITS IMPLICATIONS. The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 830 (2). https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/0004-637X/830/2/83
Lauer, T. R. et al. (2020): New Horizons Observations of the Cosmic Optical Background. The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 906 (2) https://arxiv.org/pdf/2011.03052.pdf
NASA (2015): How many stars in the Milky Way? https://asd.gsfc.nasa.gov/blueshift/index.php/2015/07/22/how-many-stars-in-the-milky-way/
ESA (2019): Hubble takes gigantic image of the Triangulum Galaxy. https://esahubble.org/news/heic1901/
De Boer, T. J. L. et al. (2014): The episodic star formation history of the Carina dwarf spheroidal galaxy. Astronomy & Astrophysics, Vol. 572 (A10). https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2014/12/aa24119-14/aa24119-14.html
Dino Calendar Facts: Estemmenosuchus
Animated Fact
Overview for years/size and diet facts:
http://palaeos.com/vertebrates/therapsida/estemmenosuchidae.html#Estemmenosuchus
Tverdokhlebov, V. et.al. (2005): Upper Permian vertebrates and their sedimentological context in the South Urals, Russia. https://cpb-eu-w2.wpmucdn.com/blogs.bristol.ac.uk/dist/5/537/files/2019/07/2005Tverdokhlebov.pdf (last access: 09/28/22)
How Radioactive are Your Teeth?
Fully Developed Story
520 nuclear tests, yield of 545 megatons:
https://www.unscear.org/docs/publications/1993/UNSCEAR_1993_Report.pdf
10,000 cancers per megaton, including FvH commentary:
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08929880903368682?journalCode=gsgs20
Summary article as a general source
https://www.americanscientist.org/article/fallout-from-nuclear-weapons-tests-and-cancer-risks
Guided Tour Through the Solar System: Venus
Animated Fact
90% gravity and size:
https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/venusfact.html
Surface temperature:
https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/venus/overview/
Volcanic rock and surface wrinkles:
http://ircamera.as.arizona.edu/NatSci102/NatSci/text/venusgeol.htm
https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/venusmodeling2017/pdf/8027.pdf
Cloud acid:
https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Venus_Express/Acid_clouds_and_lightning
Slice of heaven:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24298536_Astrobiology_The_Case_for_Venus
100 hour wind circulation:
https://www.science.org/content/article/wind-hitting-venus-s-mountains-makes-planet-rotate-faster
Polar vortices:
Tectonic Plates
TikTok Fully Developed Story
Scotese, C. (2018): Atlas of Future Plate Tectonic Reconstructions: Modern World to Pangea Proxima (+250 Ma). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323511465_Atlas_of_Future_Plate_Tectonic_Reconstructions_Modern_World_to_Pangea_Proxima_250_Ma (last access: 09/19/22)
POV: You're a Brain Eating Amoeba
This piece is based on our video "The Most Horrible Parasite: Brain Eating"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-brain-eater/
How to Make Friends Endcard
This piece is based on our video "Why You Are Lonely and How to Make Friends"
Why is Pluto no Longer a Planet?
Reaction to Question
International Astronomical Union: “Pluto and the Developing Landscape of Our Solar System” (retrieved 2022) https://www.iau.org/public/themes/pluto/
Soter, S. (2006): “What is a planet?”, The Astronomical Journal. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/508861/meta
How to Make Friends Intro
This piece is based on our video "Why You Are Lonely and How to Make Friends"
Holt-Lunstad, J. et al. (2015): Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review. Perspectives on Psychological Science 2015, Vol. 10(2), pp. 227–237 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25910392/
Valtorta, N. K. et al. (2016): Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for coronary heart disease and stroke: systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal observational studies. Heart Vol. 102, pp. 1009–1016
https://heart.bmj.com/content/102/13/1009
Achterbergh, L. et al. (2020): The experience of loneliness among young people with depression: a qualitative meta-synthesis of the literature. BMC Psychiatry Vol. 20 (415) https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-020-02818-3#citeas
Department for Digital, Culture, Media & Sport (2019): Community Life Survey 2018-19 https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/820610/Community_Life_Survey_2018-19_report.pdf
Dino Calendar Fact - Anomalocaris
Animated Fact
Lerosey-Aubril, R. et.al. (2014): Arthropod Appendages from the Weeks Formation Konservat-Lagerstätte: New Occurences of Anomalocaridids in the Cambrian of Utah, USA. http://www.geology.cz/bulletin/fulltext/1442_Lerosey-Aubril.pdf (last access: 09/09/22)
Lerosey-Aubril, R. (2019): Data from: New Suspension-feeding Radiodont Suggests Evolution of Microplanktivory in Cambrian Macronekton.
https://datadryad.org/stash/dataset/doi:10.5061/dryad.1cf2fb0 (last access: 09/09/22)
Paterson, J. et.al. (2011): Acute Vision in the Giant Cambrian Predator Anomalocaris and the Origin of Compound Eyes.
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature10689 (last access: 09/09/22)
This piece is based on our video "What Dinosaurs ACTUALLY Looked Like"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-mysteries-of-the-past/
Metamorphosis
Evolution Stories I
Casartelli, M. & Tettamanti, G. (2019): Cell Death During Complete Metamorphosis.
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/epdf/10.1098/rstb.2019.0065 (last access: 09/09/22)
Rolff, J. et.al. (2019): Complete Metamorphosis of Insects.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6711294/pdf/rstb20190063.pdf (last access: 09/09/22)
Truman, J. (2019): The Evolution of Insect Metamorphosis.
https://www.cell.com/action/showPdf?pii=S0960-9822%2819%2931315-6 (last access: 09/09/22)
Yong, E. (2013): 3-D Scans Reveal Caterpillars Turning Into Butterflies. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/3-d-scans-caterpillars-transforming-butterflies-metamorphosis (last access: 09/09/22)
LoFi Quacks
Educational content about LoFi music
All Music. https://www.allmusic.com/style/lo-fi-ma0000002701 (last access: 09/09/22)
Harper, A. (2014): Lo-Fi Aesthetics in Popular Music Discourse.
https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:cc84039c-3d30-484e-84b4-8535ba4a54f8/download_file?safe_filename=AHarper%2B-%2BLo-Fi%2BAesthetics%2BThesis.pdf&file_format=application%2Fpdf&type_of_work=Thesis (last access: 09/09/22)
Hochberg, B. (2020): Chill Hop, Jazz Hop, LoFi, Whatever You Call It, It’s Catching On With Gen-Z
https://www.forbes.com/sites/williamhochberg/2020/09/08/chill-hop-jazz-hop-lofi-whatever-you-call-it-its-driving-gen-z-mild/?sh=2d9d843f4ddf (last access: 09/09/22)
Saywood, L. & Winston, E. (2019): Beats to Relax/Study to: Contradiction and Paradox in LoFi Hip Hop.
https://iaspmjournal.net/index.php/IASPM_Journal/article/view/949/pdf_1 (last access: 09/09/22)
Civilizational Collapse
This piece is based on our video "Is Civilization on the Brink of Collapse?"
National Geographic Society (2021): The Kingdom of Aksum.
http://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/kingdom-aksum/
Encyclopedia Britannica (2021):Teotihuacán.
https://www.britannica.com/place/Teotihuacan
Encyclopedia Britannica (2021): Byzantine Empire
https://www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire
Ord, T. (2020): The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity. P. 124
Backman, C. R. (2015): Cultures of the West: A History https://global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/9780190240455/stu_res/ch11/im/
Link to an interactive map showing the extent of the spread of the Black Death at six time points: https://fdslive.oup.com/www.oup.com/uscompanion/us/static/companion.websites/9780190240455/Map11.5/Map11.5.html
Izdebski, A. et al. (2022): Palaeoecological data indicates land-use changes across Europe linked to spatial heterogeneity in mortality during the Black Death pandemic. Nature Ecology & Evolution, Vol. 6, pp. 297–306
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-021-01652-4
Aberth, J. (2020): The Black Death: A New History of the Great Mortality in Europe, 1347-1500
https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-black-death-9780199937981?cc=de&lang=en&
OWID (2021): Population
https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/population?time=1200..1804&country=~Europe
International Committee of The Red Cross (ICRC) (accessed June 2022): Hiroshima & Nagasaki
https://www.icrc.org/en/hiroshima-nagasaki
Tomonaga, M. (2019): The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki: A Summary of the Human Consequences, 1945-2018, and Lessons for Homo sapiens to End the Nuclear Weapon Age. Journal for Peace and Nuclear Disarmament, Vol. 2 (2),pp. 491-517
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/25751654.2019.1681226
U.S. Department of Energy (accessed June 2022): The Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima. The Manhattan Project: An Interactive History
https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1945/hiroshima.htm
City of Hiroshima (accessed June 2022): Statistical Profile
UN (1963): Demographic Yearbook 1962, p. 341 https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/products/dyb/dybsets/1962%20DYB.pdf
POV: Deep Sea
This piece is based on our video"What’s Hiding at the Most Solitary Place on Earth? The Deep Sea"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-deep-sea/
Guided Tour Through the Solar System: Mercury
Animated Fact
Mercury's ice-filled craters:
https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2018JE005644
https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/water-ice-on-mercury
Mercury's surface temperature:
https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/mercury/in-depth/
Mercury's gravity:
https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/mercuryfact.html
Sodium glow:
https://science.nasa.gov/mercurys-sodium-tail
https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2021GL092980
Slow sunrise:
Mercury's equatorial circumference is 2πR. Equatorial radius is 2440 km, so the circumference there is 15,330 km. One day (sunrise to sunrise) is completed in 176 Earth days, so ‘daylight’ lasts for 88 Earth days and the terminator (divide between day and night side) travels at only 3.6 km/h.
About Map Projections
Behind the Research
[This TikTok is based on our World Map Posters, detailed sources for this content piece are currently being retrieved from the Editorial and Research Team]
Big Five Mass Extinctions
TikTok Fully Developed Story
Primary Sources:
1. Ordovician extinction/event (~443 million years ago)
Claim: “The First One”
Loss: estimated 86% of species of marine life (at this time, most of the life was marine)
Causes: Ice ages + Tectonic uplift
Barnosky, A. D. et al (2011): Has the Earth’s sixth mass extinction already arrived? Nature, Vol 471, pp. 51-57 https://sci-hub.wf/10.1038/nature09678
Quote: “Onset of alternating glacial and interglacial episodes; repeated marine transgressions and regressions. Uplift and weathering of the Appalachians affecting atmospheric and ocean chemistry. Sequestration of CO2.”
2. Devonian extinction/event (~359 million years ago)
Claim: “Plants Destroyed Earth”
Loss: estimated 75% of species
Causes: Global cooling
Barnosky, A. D. et al (2011): Has the Earth’s sixth mass extinction already arrived? Nature, Vol 471, pp. 51-57
https://sci-hub.wf/10.1038/nature09678
Quote: “Global cooling (followed by global warming), possibly tied to the diversification of land plants, with associated weathering, paedogenesis, and the drawdown of global CO2. Evidence for widespread deep-water anoxia and the spread of anoxic waters by transgressions. Timing and importance of bolide impacts still debated.”
3. Permian extinction/event (~251 million years ago)
Claim: “The Largest One”
Loss: estimated 96% of species
Causes: Volcanism > global Warming
Barnosky, A. D. et al (2011): Has the Earth’s sixth mass extinction already arrived? Nature, Vol 471, pp. 51-57
https://sci-hub.wf/10.1038/nature09678
Quote: “Siberian volcanism. Global warming. Spread of deep marine anoxic waters. Elevated H2S and CO2 concentrations in both marine and terrestrial realms. Ocean acidification. Evidence for a bolide impact still debated.”
Juicy facts: Did bacteria cause the largest mass extinction? Generally, massive volcanism in the area of today's Siberia (Siberian Traps) is considered to be the cause. However, there are theories that this volcanism affected the metabolism of various bacteria, which then emitted methane and thus disrupted the carbon cycle. This in turn could have increased the sulfide levels, resulting in toxic hydrogen sulfide in the atmosphere.
Rothman, D. H. (2014): Methanogenic burst in the end-Permian carbon cycle. PNAS, Vol. 111 (15), pp. 5462–5467
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3992638/
Quote: “The end-Permian extinction is the most severe biotic crisis in the fossil record. Its occurrence has been attributed to increased CO2 levels deriving from massive Siberian volcanism. However, such arguments have been difficult to justify quantitatively. We propose that the disruption of the carbon cycle resulted from the emergence of a new microbial metabolic pathway that enabled efficient conversion of marine organic carbon to methane. The methanogenic expansion was catalyzed by nickel associated with the volcanic event.
(...)
Our principal observations—a superexponential burst in the carbon cycle, the emergence of efficient acetoclastic methanogenesis, and a spike in the availability of nickel—appear straightforwardly related to several features of end-Permian environmental change: Siberian volcanism, marine anoxia, and ocean acidification. A single horizontal gene transfer instigated biogeochemical change, massive volcanism acted as a catalyst, and the resulting expansion of acetoclastic Methanosarcina acted to perturb CO2 and O2 levels. The ensuing biogeochemical disruption would likely have been widespread. For example, anaerobic methane oxidation may have increased sulfide levels, possibly resulting in a toxic release of hydrogen sulfide to the atmosphere, causing extinctions on land.”
4. Triassic extinction/event: ~200 million years ago.
Claim: “Allowed the Dinosaurs to Dominate.”
Loss: estimated 80% of species
Causes: Volcanism
Barnosky, A. D. et al (2011): Has the Earth’s sixth mass extinction already arrived? Nature, Vol 471, pp. 51-57
https://sci-hub.wf/10.1038/nature09678
Quote: “Activity in the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) thought to have elevated atmospheric CO2 levels, which increased global temperatures and led to a calcification crisis in the world oceans.”
5. Cretaceous extinction/event: ~65 Million Years Ago.
Claim: “End of the Reign of Dinosaurs”
Loss: estimated 76% of species
Causes: Asteroid impact. However, prior to that, biodiversity also declined, perhaps due to volcanism by the Deccan Traps and tectonic shifts.
Barnosky, A. D. et al (2011): Has the Earth’s sixth mass extinction already arrived? Nature, Vol 471, pp. 51-57
https://sci-hub.wf/10.1038/nature09678
Quote: “A bolide impact in the Yucata´n is thought to have led to a global cataclysm and caused rapid cooling. Preceding the impact, biota may have been declining owing to a variety of causes: Deccan volcanism contemporaneous with global warming; tectonic uplift altering biogeography and accelerating erosion, potentially contributing to ocean eutrophication and anoxic episodes. CO2 spike just before extinction, drop during extinction.”
Juicy facts: The shock wave of the impact was so massive that this may have led to higher volcanic activity of the Deccan Trap, a giant region of flood basalts in what is now India, which may have intensified or accelerated the mass extinction after the asteroid.
Renne, P. R. et al. (2015): State shift in Deccan volcanism at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, possibly induced by impact. Science, Vol 350 (6256), pp. 76-78
https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aac7549
Quote: “Bolide impact and flood volcanism compete as leading candidates for the cause of terminal-Cretaceous mass extinctions. High-precision 40Ar/39Ar data indicate that these two mechanisms may be genetically related, and neither can be considered in isolation. The existing Deccan Traps magmatic system underwent a state shift approximately coincident with the Chicxulub impact and the terminal-Cretaceous mass extinctions, after which ~70% of the Traps' total volume was extruded in more massive and more episodic eruptions. Initiation of this new regime occurred within ~50,000 years of the impact, which is consistent with transient effects of impact-induced seismic energy. Postextinction recovery of marine ecosystems was probably suppressed until after the accelerated volcanism waned.”Barnosky, A. D. et al (2011): Has the Earth’s sixth mass extinction already arrived? Nature, Vol 471, pp. 51-57
https://sci-hub.wf/10.1038/nature09678OWID (2021): Extinctions
https://ourworldindata.org/extinctions
POV: Supermassive Black Hole Death
This piece is based on our video "What If You Fall into a Black Hole?"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-black-holes/
Civilizational Collapse
This piece is based on our video "Is Civilization on the Brink of Collapse?"
Scheidel, W. (2021): The Scale of Empire: Territory, Population, Distribution. In: Fibiger Bang, P et al. The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume One: The Imperial Experience
https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780199772360.001.0001/oso-9780199772360-chapter-2Ionescu, C. et al. (2015): The historical evolution of the energy efficient buildings. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. Vol. 49, pp. 243-253
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.062Miliaresis, I. (2019): Throwing money out the window: fuel in the Forum Baths at Ostia. In: Fuel and Fire in the Ancient Roman World Towards an integrated economic understanding. Pp. 39-50
https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1810/299262/Fuel_and_Fire_Chapter4.pdf?sequence=3Brune, P. & Perucchio, R. (2012): Roman Concrete Vaulting in the Great Hall of Trajan’s Markets: Structural Evaluation. Journal of Architectural Engineering, Vol. 18 (4), pp. 332-340
https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/%28ASCE%29AE.1943-5568.0000086Jackson, M. D. et al. (2013): Unlocking the secrets of Al-tobermorite in Roman seawater concrete. American Mineralogist, Vol. 98 (10), pp. 1669-1687
https://doi.org/10.2138/am.2013.4484Temin, P. (2017): The Roman market economy. Princeton University Press.
Young, G. K. (2001). Rome’s eastern trade: International commerce and imperial policy, 31 BC-AD 305
https://www.routledge.com/Romes-Eastern-Trade-International-Commerce-and-Imperial-Policy-31-BC--/Young/p/book/9780415620130Barja de Quiroga, P. L. (1995): Freedmen Social Mobility in Roman Italy. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Vol. 44 (3), pp. 326-348
https://www.jstor.org/stable/4436383The Evolutionary World Politics Homepage (2008): World cities in history: An overview
https://web.archive.org/web/20070402100205/http://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/WcitiesH.htmMorris, I. (2013): The measure of civilization: How social development decides the fate of nations. Princeton University Press.
https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691155685/the-measure-of-civilizationSullivan, L. E. (2009): The SAGE Glossary of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, p. 73
https://books.google.fr/books?id=3041K2Zv76AC&pg=PT113&dq=%22from+the+Latin+civilis%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=p_8PT5jSGYyyhAfFx5iJAg&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=%22from%20the%20Latin%20civilis%22&f=falseBBC (2019): Are we on the road to civilisation collapse?
https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190218-are-we-on-the-road-to-civilisation-collapseTaagepera, R. (1978): Size and duration of empires growth-decline curves, 3000 to 600 b.c., Social Science Research, Vol. 7 (2), pp. 180-196
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0049089X78900108Taagepera, R. (1979): Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D., Social Science History, Vol. 3, (3/4), pp. 115-138
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1170959?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contentsMotesharrei, S. et al. (2014): Human and nature dynamics (HANDY): Modeling inequality and use of resources in the collapse or sustainability of societies. Ecological Economics, Vol. 101, pp. 90-102
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921800914000615?via%3Dihub
Earth Aliens
This piece is based on our video "Are There Lost Alien Civilizations in Our Past?"
Schmidt, G., & Frank, A. The Silurian hypothesis: Would it be possible to detect an industrial civilization in the geological record?, 2019.
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-astrobiology/article/silurian-hypothesis-would-it-be-possible-to-detect-an-industrial-civilization-in-the-geological-record/77818514AA6907750B8F4339F7C70EC6Wright, J. T. Prior indigenous technological species. International Journal of Astrobiology, 2018.
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-astrobiology/article/prior-indigenous-technological-species/5D349ECF89D1D77DC537D419F0172CC6Haqq-Misra J. & Kopparapu R. K. On the likelihood of non-terrestrial artifacts in the Solar System, 2012.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0094576511003122?via%3DihubWright, J. T. Prior indigenous technological species. International Journal of Astrobiology, 2018.
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-astrobiology/article/prior-indigenous-technological-species/5D349ECF89D1D77DC537D419F0172CC6Schmidt, G., & Frank, A. The Silurian hypothesis: Would it be possible to detect an industrial civilization in the geological record?, 2019.
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-astrobiology/article/silurian-hypothesis-would-it-be-possible-to-detect-an-industrial-civilization-in-the-geological-record/77818514AA6907750B8F4339F7C70EC6Haqq-Misra and Baum, The Sustainability Solution To The Fermi Paradox, 2009.
https://arxiv.org/pdf/0906.0568.pdfSchmidt, G., & Frank, A. The Silurian hypothesis: Would it be possible to detect an industrial civilization in the geological record?, 2019.
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-astrobiology/article/silurian-hypothesis-would-it-be-possible-to-detect-an-industrial-civilization-in-the-geological-record/77818514AA6907750B8F4339F7C70EC6Wright, J. T. Prior indigenous technological species. International Journal of Astrobiology, 2018.
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-astrobiology/article/prior-indigenous-technological-species/5D349ECF89D1D77DC537D419F0172CC6Wright, J. T. Prior indigenous technological species. International Journal of Astrobiology, 2018.
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-astrobiology/article/prior-indigenous-technological-species/5D349ECF89D1D77DC537D419F0172CC6Koch et al. Correlation between isotope records in marine and continental carbon reservoirs near the Palaeocene/Eocene boundary, 1992.
https://www.nature.com/articles/358319a0Kirtland Turner et al., A probabilistic assessment of the rapidity of PETM onset, 2017
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-00292-2Soliman et al., Enhanced coastal paleoproductivity and nutrient supply in Upper Egypt during the Paleocene/Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM): Mineralogical and geochemical evidence, 2017.
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https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-astrobiology/article/silurian-hypothesis-would-it-be-possible-to-detect-an-industrial-civilization-in-the-geological-record/77818514AA6907750B8F4339F7C70EC6
Can You Escape a Black Hole?
Reaction to Question
Primary Sources:
Markus Pössel (2010): Changing places – space and time inside a black hole. Einstein Online, Band 04, 03-1009
https://www.einstein-online.info/en/spotlight/changing_places/
Goddess Lyssa
TikTok Dance
García, J. T. (2014): The Origin and Causes of Schizophrenia and Madness in Greek
Culture. Journal of Humanistic Psychiatry, Vol. 1(2)http://www.humanisticpsychiatry.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/TJHP-Winter14.pdf
Dino Calendar Fact - Dunkleosteus
Animated Fact
Bite speed: https://sci-hub.wf/10.1666/08011.1
Body length: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5723140/#ref-7
Ladder to Space
TikTok Fully Developed Story
Primary Sources:
M. Caplan, personal communication 2022.
"The physics of the space elevator", Aravind, P. K. American Journal of Physics, Volume 75, Issue 2, pp. 125-130 (2007).
"Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics", 4th Edition Douglas C. Giancoli
Star Map Poster
Behind the Research
This TikTok is based on our "The Night Sky" Poster, all sources can be found here.
Guided Tour Through the Solar System: Mars
Animated Fact
Mars is cold: https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/nasa-knows/what-is-mars-58.html
Mars' atmosphere: https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/marsfact.html
Mars' blue sunrise + dust scattering: https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/925/what-does-a-sunrise-sunset-look-like-on-mars/
Global dust storm three times a (Mars) decade: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2019JE006106
Rover Opportunity dies to dust storm:
https://mars.nasa.gov/mer/mission/rover-status/opportunity/recent/all/
Rabies - Travel Report
This content piece is based on our video "The Deadliest Virus on Earth"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-rabies/
Will a Dog Bite Kill Me?
Reaction to Question
Dino Fossils Part 2
This piece is based on our video "What Dinosaurs ACTUALLY looked like"
David Hone, Bias in the fossil record, 2008
https://archosaurmusings.wordpress.com/2008/10/15/bias-in-the-fossil-record/Dinosaur Bones, AMNH
https://www.amnh.org/dinosaurs/dinosaur-bonesWhen did dinosaurs become extinct?, USGS
https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/when-did-dinosaurs-become-extinct?qt-news_science_products=0#qt-news_science_productsKatie Peek, Dinosaur Discoveries Are Booming, 2021
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/dinosaur-discoveries-are-booming/The Paleobiology Database
https://paleobiodb.org/#/DINOSAURS, National Geographic, October 2020
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/reimagining-dinosaurs-prehistoric-icons-get-a-modern-reboot-interactive-featureJakob Vinther, Robert Nicholls, Diane A. Kelly. A cloacal opening in a non-avian dinosaur, 2021.
https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(20)31891-1?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982220318911%3Fshowall%3Dtrue#%20Bi et al., An oviraptorid preserved atop an embryo-bearing egg clutch sheds light on the reproductive biology of non-avian theropod dinosaurs, 2021.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2095927320307635?via%3DihubTitus et al, Geology and taphonomy of a unique tyrannosaurid bonebed from the upper Campanian Kaiparowits Formation of southern Utah: implications for tyrannosaurid gregariousness, 2021.
https://peerj.com/articles/11013/
Heat Death
Fully Developed Story
Primary Sources:
Personal Communication Prof. M. Caplan, June 2022
Adams, Fred ; Laughlin, Gregory P. (1999), The Five Ages of the Universe
Dino Fossils Part 1
This piece is based on our video "What Dinosaurs ACTUALLY looked like"
Number of species on Earth tagged at 8.7 million, Nature, 2011
https://www.nature.com/articles/news.2011.498Mora C, Tittensor DP, Adl S, Simpson AGB, Worm B. How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?, 2011
https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127Robert M. May, Why Worry about How Many Species and Their Loss?, 2011
https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001130Barnosky, A., Matzke, N., Tomiya, S. et al. Has the Earth’s sixth mass extinction already arrived?, 2011
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature09678
Prosperity vs. Pollution
This piece is based on our video "We WILL Fix Climate Change!"
Ruffing, K. (2007): Indicators to measure decoupling of environmental pressure from economic growth. Sustainability Indicators: A Scientific Assessment, 67
https://www.oecd.org/env/indicators-modelling-outlooks/1933638.pdf
Haberl, H. et. al (2020): A systematic review of the evidence on decoupling of GDP, resource use and GHG emissions, part II: synthesizing the insights. Environmental Research Letters, Vol. 15 (6)
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab842a#artAbstOur World in Data; Change in CO2 emissions and GDP
https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/co2-emissions-and-gdp?country=~CZE
https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/co2-emissions-and-gdp?time=2009..2019&country=~FRA
https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/co2-emissions-and-gdp?time=2009..2019&country=~ROU
https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/co2-emissions-and-gdp?time=2009..2019&country=~USA
POV: Dinosaur Death
This piece is based on our video "The Day the Dinosaurs Died – Minute by Minute"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sourcesdinosaurapocalypse/
Human Cube
This piece is based on our video "The Last Human – A Glimpse Into The Far Future"
The detailed sources can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/sources-last-human/
Chicken Heads
Fully Developed Story
Primary Sources:
Steck F, Wandeler A, Nydegger B, Manigley C & Weiss, M (1980) Die Tollwut in der Schweiz 1967-1978. Schweiz. Arch. Tierheilk., 122, 605-636.
Steck F, Wandeler A, Bischsel P, Capt S & Schneider LG (1982) Oral Immunisation of foxes against Rabies. A field study : Zbl. Vet. Med., 29B, 372-396.
https://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/programmes/en/empres/gemp/avis/B058-rabies/mod0/0138-oral-wild.html
Supplementary sources:
https://veterinaryresearch.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13567-017-0459-9
https://www.spiegel.de/kultur/heil-aus-huehnerkoepfen-a-af8a7a4b-0002-0001-0000-000040350236