An insulin pen is a device that delivers insulin injections into the body's subcutaneous tissue.

Insulin pens are a form of insulin therapy for people with diabetes.

Background information

Types of Insulin Pen

Features

Pros and Cons

Future Advancement I

Future Advancement II

References

Background information

Figure 1: Normal blood glucose vs High blood glucose (What Is Diabetes?, 2024)

Overview of Diabetes

Diabetes is a chronic condition affecting how the body turns food into energy. This energy, in the form of glucose, is transported to cells with the aid of insulin. Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas, which is vital for blood glucose regulation, and prevents hyperglycemia, or high blood sugar. Diabetes occurs when the pancreas produces insufficient insulin or the body cannot consume it effectively. When left unmanaged, diabetes can severely impact various body systems, especially nerves and blood vessels.
In 2014, 8.5% of adults worldwide were affected by diabetes. By 2019, diabetes accounted for 1.5 million direct deaths, with nearly half occurring before age 70. Additionally, diabetes contributed to 460,000 kidney disease deaths and is responsible for about 20% of cardiovascular fatalities (Diabetes, 2023).

Type of Diabetes

Figure 2: Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes (Malfunctions, n.d.)

Type 1 Diabetes

An autoimmune disease where the body’s immune system mistakenly attacks the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas
Insulin production is deficient
Requires lifelong management by taking insulin daily
Often diagnosed in childhood or adolescence but can develop at any age
Family history can increase the risk of developing Type 1 diabetes

Type 2 Diabetes

A condition where the body either resists insulin or doesn’t produce enough insulin to regulate blood sugar levels effectively
Insulin production may be insufficient, or the body's cells do not respond well to insulin
Managed through lifestyle changes, medication, and regular monitoring of blood glucose levels
Often diagnosed in adulthood but can occur at any age, increasingly in younger populations
Family history, obesity, and physical inactivity increase the risk of developing Type 2 diabetes

Role of insulin in blood sugar regulation

Insulin is a crucial polypeptide hormone primarily secreted by the β (beta) cells in the islets of Langerhans within the pancreas. It plays a vital role in maintaining glucose homeostasis and coordinating various metabolic processes in the body. Insulin facilitates the uptake of glucose from the bloodstream into cells, particularly in muscle, fat, and liver tissues, thereby lowering blood glucose levels and helping to maintain them within a healthy range (Rahman et al., 2021).After a meal, blood sugar levels rise as glucose is absorbed from the digestive tract into the bloodstream. Then, insulin will be released by the pancreas in response to the rising blood sugar level and bind to insulin receptors in the liver to uptake the glucose.However, in type 1 diabetes, the body's immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas. As a result, the body can't produce enough insulin. In type 2 diabetes, the body becomes resistant to insulin, meaning it doesn't use insulin effectively. As the disease progresses, the pancreas may also produce less insulin. When insulin is absent or ineffective, glucose accumulates in the bloodstream, leading to high blood sugar levels. This can cause a variety of health problems, including damage to blood vessels, nerves, kidneys, and eyes. To tackle this problem, insulin pens have been developed.

Types of insulin

Insulin falls into three main categories: Fast-acting, Intermediate-acting, and Long-acting (Types of insulin, 2012).

Fast-acting Insulin

Quickly absorbed from fat tissue into the bloodstream.
Helps control blood sugar levels around meals and snacks and corrects high blood sugars.
Types include:
- Rapid-acting insulin analogs (e.g., Insulin Aspart, Insulin Lispro, Insulin Glulisine): Onset within 5 to 15 minutes, peak action between 1 to 2 hours, and a duration of 4-6 hours. Generally, these insulins last around 4 hours, though larger doses may extend up to 6 hours.
- Regular human insulin: Onset occurs in 30 minutes to 1 hour, peaking at 2 to 4 hours, with effects lasting 6-8 hours. Higher doses tend to act faster, peak later, and last longer (Types of insulin, 2012).

Intermediate-acting Insulin

Absorbed more gradually and maintains blood sugar control for an extended period, suitable for use between meals and overnight.
Types include:
- NPH human insulin: Starts acting in 1 to 2 hours, peaks at 4 to 6 hours, and lasts over 12 hours. Smaller doses may have shorter effects, while larger doses extend peak and duration.
- Pre-mixed insulin: A blend of NPH and either regular human insulin or rapid-acting insulin analogs, combining characteristics of both short- and intermediate-acting insulins (Types of insulin, 2012).

Long-acting Insulin

Absorbed slowly with minimal peak, providing stable blood sugar control throughout the day.
Types include:
- Long-acting insulin analogs (e.g., Insulin Glargine, Insulin Detemir): Onset in 1.5 to 2 hours, plateau effect thereafter, with Insulin Detemir lasting 12-24 hours and Insulin Glargine up to 24 hours (Types of insulin, 2012).

Types of Insulin Pen

Disposable Insulin Pen, Reusable Insulin Pen, Smart Insulin Pen

Disposable Insulin Pen

Disposable insulin pens are designed for a single use and are prefilled with insulin. This is convenient for patients who would not prefer to handle cartridges of insulin. Because they are light in weight, carrying them has become easier, and insulin can be given discretionally without anybody's notice. They do not require separate syringes and vials-both reducing the risk of infection usually associated with multi-use devices. Examples include the Lantus SoloStar and Humalog KwikPen, each of which delivers either long-acting or fast-acting insulin, respectively. The primary benefits of a disposable pen are that it will be easier to administer, waste disposal will be simpler, and the potential for dosing errors will not be a factor because there is no manual filling of the device.(Insulin Pens Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report by Type (Reusable Insulin Pens, Disposable Insulin Pens), by End-use (Hospitals & Clinics, Homecare, Others), by Region, and Segment Forecasts, 2024 - 2030, n.d.), (Insulin Pens Market Size, Global Share | Forecast 2032, n.d.), (Insulin Pens Market Size, Global Share | Forecast 2032, n.d.-b)

Figure 3: Example of reusable insulin pens (ServoPen – the Automatic Reusable Pen - Ypsomed Delivery Systems, n.d.-b)

Reusable Insulin Pen

Reusable insulin pens can be reused by replacing the cartridge of insulin within the pen casing, thus making them more economical in the long run. These types of pens are designed to be used multiple numbers of times and can last for several years if good care is taken. Many of them come with variable dosages, delivering insulin that is more accurate-a very important factor in the effective management of diabetes. NovoPen Echo and Autopen are reusable pens. In this sense, they are preferred by their cost-effectiveness and lesser impact on the environment compared to disposable pens. Moreover, these pens are more personalized in that the users can control some of the settings according to their specific needs regarding treatment.(Insulin Pens Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report by Type (Reusable Insulin Pens, Disposable Insulin Pens), by End-use (Hospitals & Clinics, Homecare, Others), by Region, and Segment Forecasts, 2024 - 2030, n.d.), (Smart Insulin Pens Market, 2023b)

Figure 4: Example of smart pens (Smart MDI | Medtronic, 2024b)

Smart Insulin Pen

One of the major technologies in advanced diabetes management includes smart insulin pens. All have Bluetooth connectivity, real-time data capture, and integration with a host of smartphone apps that track dosing and provide reminders. InPen is a model of the smart insulin pen, which enables the users to better manage their insulin delivery since the dose is calculated for them in relation to user-set carbohydrate intake and blood glucose settings. Smart pens improve patient adherence to therapy by providing valuable, data-driven insights into usage patterns that enable better decision-making in the management of diabetes (Kompala & Neinstein, 2021b), (Barrett, 2024b).

Figure 5: Example of smart pens(Smart MDI | Medtronic, 2024b)

Other Insulin Delivery Technologies

Figure 6: Insulin pump (Insulin Pumps & Continuous Glucose Monitors, 2024b)

Insulin Pumps

Insulin pumps provide continuous subcutaneous insulin delivery and can be programmed to adjust dosages based on real-time glucose levels.

Needle-free injection systems

Needle-free systems, such as the InsuJet, use high-pressure jets to deliver insulin without needles, reducing pain associated with traditional injections.

Figure 7: Needle-free injection system (InsuJet, n.d.-b)

Features

Mechanism of Insulin Pen

An insulin pen looks like a writing pen. But it has a single-use needle for its point and insulin as its “ink.” (How Do You Use Insulin Pens?, n.d.). Pen devices combine the syringe and insulin container in a single unit that provides precise, convenient insulin delivery

Pen devices combine the syringe and insulin container in a single unit (Moser et al., 2012). Users turn a dial to select the desired dose of insulin and press a plunger on the end to conveniently deliver the insulin into the subcutaneous tissue — the innermost layer of skin in your body. Some pens provide tactile and auditory feedback when dose setting which can improve patient's confidence in selecting the correct dose (Asakura & Seino, 2005). These types of feedback can provide accessibility for patients with visual impairment (Diabetes and Visual Impairment, n.d.).

Typically, for desired efficacy, insulin should be injected into the subcutaneous layer, or fat layer under the skin. Patients should avoid injecting into the muscle as not only is it more painful, the uptake and action of insulin becomes variably faster, leading to suboptimal, inconsistent glucose control. To avoid such situations, typically, the shortest needles available are used.

Injection sites should be rotated as injections in the same spot over time can cause lipohypertrophy, which also substantially affects insulin uptake and action.

Basic Features

Insulin reservoir: This is a clear plastic container that holds the insulin in the pen. You can see the “quality” of the insulin (like if it’s cloudy or clear) and how much insulin is left in the pen. Some pens have insulin cartridges (reservoirs) that you can replace. Other pens are disposable — you throw them away once the insulin reservoir runs out.
Pen cap: The cap protects the insulin reservoir from damage when you’re not using the pen.
Rubber seal: The rubber seal is where you connect a single-use needle for an injection.
Needle: Needles for insulin pens are single-use, which means you only use them for one injection and then throw them away. Each needle comes in a sterile protective container. You remove the needle from the container and attach it to the pen before an injection. Pen needles come in different sizes. Talk to your healthcare provider to choose the pen needle that’s best for you.

Dosage knob: This is a knob you turn to select the insulin dose you need.
Dosage window: This shows the number of units of insulin you select using the knob.
Injection button: Once you inject the pen needle, you press the injection button to give the insulin dose.
Label: The label tells you the type and brand of insulin in the pen and its expiration date

Pros and Cons

Pros

Improved Accuracy: Insulin pens provide more consistent dosing than vials and syringes, which can be prone to user error
- Some patients even prefer insulin pens over insulin pumps due to the freedom of not having a device attached to them. (How Do You Use Insulin Pens?, n.d.)
Smart Technology: Some insulin pens are equipped with smart technology that connects to mobile applications. This integration allows users to track their doses and monitor blood glucose levels in real-time, improving adherence to treatment plans (Pearson, 2010)
Ease of Use: Because of the greater ease of use of insulin pens, people with visual impairment or reduced dexterity may especially benefit from using an insulin pen rather than a vial and syringe (Pearson, 2010). Some studies indicated wider acceptability in elderly and adolescent patients with respect to easier and faster injection and greater comfort (Al-Tabakha & Arida, 2008)
Reduced Pain: The use of ultra-thin needles minimizes discomfort during injections. Innovations like the BD Nano™ pen needles focus on reducing penetration force, enhancing patient comfort.
- The new design has demonstrated more reliable subcutaneous injection depth resulting in up to an 8-fold reduction in calculated intramuscular injection risk.

Cons

Restrictions on using all types of insulin through a pen.
- Patients cannot mix their own insulin formulations for use in a single injection given by an insulin pen (Pearson, 2010). A study found that the general response to self-mixed/split regimen was that it was too difficult for patients and physicians (Davidson, 2013).
- There are premixed insulin formulations, however, long-acting insulin such as Insulin detemir and Insulin glargine cannot be mixed with other insulins.
Inflexibility of Premixed insulin: Premmixed insulin formulations require patients to follow a strict diet and schedule. The loss in schedule flexibility is offset by the gain in benefits with decreased costs and decreased shots which patients would have weigh and decide by themselves. (Premixed Insulin, 2017)
Waste Generation: The global generation of waste from insulin pens is significant, with estimates indicating that over 600 million insulin pens are produced annually by major manufacturers like Novo Nordisk alone. Annually, the current use of disposable insulin pens results in approximately 1,000 tonnes of CO2 equivalent emissions.
- Insulin pens are not typically recycled due to contamination and the complexity of their materials and most of it end up in landfills or incinerators.
- For example, a study highlighted that out of thousands collected for recycling, only about 2,000 pens were successfully processed in one initiative, indicating substantial waste generation.

Future Advancement I

Figure 8: Illustration of ALL-IN-ONE insulin pen (NovoPen® 6 and NovoPen Echo® Plus, n.d.)

ALL-IN-ONE INSULIN PEN

Depending on prescription needs, insulin types are grouped by their onset and duration of action, often requiring patients to carry multiple pens for different types of insulin suited to various situations. The ALL-IN-ONE INSULIN PEN is designed to simplify diabetes management by combining multiple types of insulin into a single device, reducing the need for multiple pens.

Multi-Cartridge System

The multi-cartridge system enables users to store more than 2 types of insulin in one device. One of the most common pairs of insulin is rapid-acting insulin and long-acting insulin. Each cartridge is securely held within the pen and connected to corresponding plungers. The plungers are color-coded to reduce the risk of selecting the wrong type. Multi-plunger system separates and indicates different types of insulin in the pen, allowing users to switch between insulin without carrying multiple pens.

Smart Insulin Pen Features

Features from smart insulin pens such as NFC connection to transfer dose memory can be integrated into this pen. (NovoPen® 6 and NovoPen Echo® Plus, n.d.) Through the app, users can track injection history, log insulin usage, insulin temperature and receive reminders for upcoming injections or cartridge replacements. Integration with wearable health devices or apps allows users to monitor blood glucose levels in real-time, personalizing insulin management even further. (InPen™ Smart Insulin Pen | Medtronic, n.d.)

Maintaining Rotating Dial For Insulin Dose

Users select the precise insulin dose needed with a rotating dial. This dial is designed for accuracy, with a mechanism to prevent incorrect shooting of required dose. It includes clear marking, notification sound and a click-stop system for users to acknowledge the increment and avoid accidental dosage errors. This feature keep the user’s experience consistent with standard insulin pens.

Safety Lock

Safety lock feature ensure correct insulin selection and dosage is injected. The user must unlock the pen and confirm the insulin type and dosage before every injection. When engaging or disengaging safety lock, the ‘ting’ sound is emitted to signal the pen’s status. This can prevent accidental dispensing or switching between insulin types.

Thermal Insulated Cartridge Compartment

All-in-one insulin pen equipped with a thermal insulated cartridge compartment, to maintain the effectiveness and quality of insulin. This feature makes sure insulin is safe from external temperature fluctuations, keeping it within an optimal temperature range for safe use. Particularly suitable for Singapore’s tropical climate, where users are frequently exposed to high temperatures. Thermal insulation prevents insulin degradation from heat exposure, ensuring its effectiveness throughout the day regardless of the external conditions.

Find My Insulin Pen

For users who always lost their pen, this enables users to use Bluetooth tracking via the companion app. If the pen is lost within range, users can trigger sound on the pen to locate it quickly. Similar to phone tracking technology, the app could display the last known location of the pen if it lost out of range. This feature is particularly useful for individuals who are prone to misplacing small, essential items.

Eco-Friendly Efficiency

This streamlined design not only enhances user convenience but also promotes sustainability by decreasing plastic waste and resource consumption associated with producing, packaging, and disposing of multiple pens. Estimated over 600 million insulin pens produced annually by major manufactures like Novo Nordisk. (Kansteiner, 2022). Reusable insulin pens have the potential to reduce plastic waste by up to 89%, and our design aims to further enhance this reduction. Additionally, the use of reusable pens can decrease the carbon footprint associated with insulin delivery by 40% (Reusable Insulin Pens, 2024). By combining multiple types of insulin into a single pen, our design not only minimizes plastic waste but also further reduces the carbon footprint, contributing to more sustainable and efficient diabetes management. The disposal of insulin pen contributes to a significant amount of plastic waste especially when they are not recyclable due to its biohazard risk (Heinemann & Klonoff, 2022). With its all-in-one functionality, the insulin pen supports both practical and environmental goals, making diabetes management more efficient and eco-friendly.

Future Advancement II

What's the problem?

Diabetic patients often face several challenges with traditional insulin delivery methods, particularly with the use of insulin pens. A typical regimen includes Basal Insulin (Long-Acting) which is administered once daily for baseline control and Bolus Insulin (Rapid/Short-Acting) in which doses are taken before each meal, tailored to carbohydrate intake and current blood glucose levels. However this approach has notable disadvantages which include the requirement of multiple injections per day, which can lead to inconvenience and public embarrassment. And most importantly, the use of multiple syringes and needles daily contributes to medical waste, raising environmental issues.

Microfluidic Dual-Chamber Insulin System:

To address these challenges, we propose a novel insulin delivery system utilising microfluidic technology. The use of microfluidics enables precise manipulation of liquids at small scales, resulting in a larger surface-to-volume ratio and reduced diffusion distance (Rohra et al., 2022). This technology facilitates the encapsulation of insulin in microspheres with minimal loss during the process.

This system will feature a dual-chamber injection device, with each chamber encapsulating the long-acting and rapid-acting insulins respectively within microspheres. Depending on whether the insulin is long-acting or short-acting, the composition of the microspheres will be different.

First Chamber : Long-Acting Insulin

The first chamber contains long-acting insulin (e.g., insulin detemir) encapsulated in porous hydrogel shells made of sodium alginate and cellulose nanocrystals and its slow release can be tailored by increasing the thickness and cross-linkage of the cellulose matrix, thus providing stable basal coverage.

Figure 10: ZIF-8 Framework for the short-acting insulin

Second Chamber : Short-Acting Insulin

The second chamber contains rapid-acting insulin (e.g., insulin glulisine) encapsulated in either ZIF-8 framework or porous PLGA microspheres. This setup allows for the controlled release of insulin in response to glucose levels. Both ZIF-8 and porous PLGA are stimulus-responsive. Through the ZIF-8 framework, the gold nanoparticles within the MOF (metal-organic framework) oxidise glucose molecules that enter the porous microsphere. This oxidation lowers the pH within the ZIF-8 structure, triggering the release of insulin when glucose is present (Rohra et al., 2022). Alternatively, porous PLGA microspheres utilise charged phenylboronic acid (PBA) groups that bind glucose, forming reversible covalent complexes (Wu et al., 2017). As glucose concentration rises, the increased hydrophilicity facilitates greater swelling and allows more insulin to be released through enlarged pores. Therefore, this proposed system mimics natural pancreatic function by releasing insulin at varying rates based on real-time glucose levels, offering a more tailored approach than existing long-acting insulins like insulin icodec.

Advancing Sustainability by Targeting SDG Goals for a Better Future

Aligning with Singapore’s zero waste Masterplan, our proposed system using microfluidic technology can greatly reduce the number of syringes and needles used daily, aligning with the 12th Sustainable Development Goal - Responsible Consumption and Production. This is thanks to the single injection requirement using the dual chamber design, which also allows for a more discreet injection process, minimising embarrassment associated with public administration. Additionally, Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) can be used for the mirochip material which poses no harmful threats to the environment, including the soil and aqueous environment (Shang-Yuan, Li, & Yang, 2012).

Moving Forward...

As microfluidic technology allows for continuous production processes rather than batch processes, this enhances scalability and efficiency in manufacturing microsphere formulations. Moving forward, we can tap into the microfluidic system to incorporate glucose monitoring technologies for real-time feedback and adjustment of insulin delivery based on individual patient needs.

With the microfluidics module market projected to grow from approximately $18 billion in 2023 to $22 billion by 2029, we look forward to see a scaling up in production while maintaining the cost-effectiveness and consistency of quality (Horizon Databook, 2023). We look forward to see a growth in research and breakthroughs from hurdles that hinder the scaling of production, which includes developing effective methods for liquid flow control in highly parallelized systems (Yole Group, 2024).

References

Al-Tabakha, M. M., & Arida, A. I. (2008). Recent Challenges in Insulin Delivery Systems: A Review. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 70(3), 278. https://doi.org/10.4103/0250-474X.42968

Asakura, T., & Seino, H. (2005). Assessment of dose selection attributes with audible notification in insulin pen devices. Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics, 7(4), 620–626. https://doi.org/10.1089/dia.2005.7.620

Barrett, M. (2024, June 4). Smart Insulin Pen/Smart Cap Bridge Technology Gap for MDI. Breakthrough T1D. https://www.breakthrought1d.org/news-and-updates/smart-insulin-pen-smart-cap-bridge-technology-gap-for-mdi/

BD Launches Ergonomic Pen Needle Technology to Help Optimize Injection Technique. (2019, January 24). BD Newsroom. https://news.bd.com/2019-01-24-BD-Launches-Ergonomic-Pen-Needle-Technology-to-Help-Optimize-Injection-Technique-1

Davidson, M. B. (2013). Self-Mixed/Split Insulin Regimen: A Serious Omission in the ADA/EASD Position Statement. Diabetes Care, 37(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc13-1665

Diabetes. (2023, April 5). World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes

Diabetes and Visual Impairment: Are Insulin Pens Accessible? (n.d.). The American Foundation for the Blind. Retrieved 4 November 2024, from https://www.afb.org/aw/7/4/14552

Heinemann, L., & Klonoff, D. C. (2022). Diabetes Technology and Waste: A Complex Story. Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology, 16(6), 1381–1384. https://doi.org/10.1177/19322968211022321

Horizon Databook. (2023). Microfluidics Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report By Application (Medical/Healthcare, Non-Medical), By Material (Silicon, Glass), By Technology, By Region, And Segment Forecasts, 2024 - 2030. Gradnview Research. Retrieved from https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/microfluidics-market

How Do You Use Insulin Pens? (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved 3 November 2024, from https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/treatments/17923-insulin-pen-injections

InPen™ Smart Insulin Pen | Medtronic. (n.d.). Medtronic Diabetes. https://www.medtronicdiabetes.com/products/inpen-smart-insulin-pen-system

InsuJet. (n.d.). InsuJet - Needle-free insulin injection system. https://insujet.com/en-sg

Insulin Pens Market Size, Global Share | Forecast 2032. (n.d.). https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/industry-reports/insulin-pens-market-100252

Insulin Pens Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report By Type (Reusable Insulin Pens, Disposable Insulin Pens), By End-use (Hospitals & Clinics, Homecare, Others), By Region, And Segment Forecasts, 2024 - 2030. (n.d.). https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/insulin-pens-market-report

Insulin Pen Overview & FAQs. (n.d.). ADCES. Retrieved 3 November 2024, from https://www.adces.org/education/danatech/insulin-medicine-delivery/insulin-medicine-delivery-101/insulin-pen-overview-faqs

Insulin Pumps & Continuous Glucose Monitors. (2024, July 8). UMass Chan Medical School. https://www.umassmed.edu/dcoe/diabetes-education/pumps_and_cgm/

Kansteiner. (2022, November 9). Plastics Reborn: Inside Novo Nordisk’s prefilled pen recycling pilot. FIERCE Pharma. https://www.fiercepharma.com/pharma/plastic-palimpsests-inside-novo-nordisks-pre-filled-pen-recycling-pilot

Kompala, T., & Neinstein, A. B. (2021). Smart Insulin Pens: Advancing Digital Transformation and a Connected Diabetes Care Ecosystem. Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology, 16(3), 596–604. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932296820984490

Malfunctions. (n.d.). BioNinja. https://vce.bioninja.com.au/unit-one/area-of-study-2-system/malfunctions.html

Moser, E. G., Morris, A. A., & Garg, S. K. (2012). Emerging diabetes therapies and technologies. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, 97(1), 16–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2012.01.027

NovoPen® 6 and NovoPen Echo® Plus. (n.d.). Novo Nordisk. https://www.novonordisk.com/our-products/smart-pens/novopen-6.html

Pearson, T. L. (2010). Practical Aspects of Insulin Pen Devices. Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology, 4(3), 522. https://doi.org/10.1177/193229681000400304

Premixed Insulin: Best Practice Strategies. (2017, March 27). Medscape. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/877472

Reusable insulin pens. (2024, August 27). Greener Practice. https://www.greenerpractice.co.uk/information-and-resources/clinical-considerations/prescribing-and-deprescribing/reusable-insulin-pens/

Rohra, N., Gaikwad, G., Dandekar, P., & Jain, R. (2022). Microfluidic synthesis of a bioactive Metal–Organic framework for Glucose-Responsive insulin delivery. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 14(6), 8251–8265. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.1c22153

ServoPen – The automatic reusable pen - Ypsomed Delivery Systems. (n.d.). Ypsomed Delivery Systems. https://yds.ypsomed.com/en/injection-systems/pen-injectors/servopen.html

Shang-Yuan, Li, Y. X., & Yang, J. (2012). Environmental behavior and ecological effect of polydimethylsiloxane: A review. The journal of applied ecology. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233796654_Environmental_behavior_and_ecological_effect_of_polydimethylsiloxane_A_review

Smart Insulin Pens Market. (2023, June 1). https://www.futuremarketinsights.com/reports/smart-insulin-pens-market

Smart MDI | Medtronic. (2024, September 11). https://www.medtronicdiabetes.com/products/smart-mdi

Types of insulin. (2012, December 4). Diabetes Education Online. https://dtc.ucsf.edu/types-of-diabetes/type2/treatment-of-type-2-diabetes/medications-and-therapies/type-2-insulin-rx/types-of-insulin/

What is diabetes? (2024, October 4). National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diabetes/overview/what-is-diabetes

Wu, J., Williams, G. R., Li, H., Wang, D., Li, S., & Zhu, L. (2017). Insulin-loaded PLGA microspheres for glucose-responsive release. Drug Delivery, 24(1), 1513–1525. https://doi.org/10.1080/10717544.2017.1381200

Yole Group. (2024). Status of the Microfluidics Industry 2024. Yole Intelligence. https://www.yolegroup.com/product/report/status-of-the-microfluidics- industry-2024/

Page updated

Google Sites

Report abuse