Learning Theory

Overview

All animals learn the same way! Every species we have handled and trained, including humans, process new information following the same general principles (1, 2, 3). There are different types of learning theories, but for the purposes of animal training, we mainly stick to Behaviorism Learning Theory.

Learning can only occur when the Learner chooses to engage.
Learning can be emotionally difficult.
Learning occurs as a result of consequences.
- - "Consequences" is a neutral term in terms of learning.

The basics of Behaviorism Learning Theory were organized by scientists Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, and B.F. Skinner.

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov is the first name most people think of when they hear the term "Classical Conditioning". Pavlov and his dogs provided evidence of this type of learning when the dogs salivated at just the sound of a bell. Pavlov had discovered that we can pair a neutral stimulus (bell) with an appetitive stimulus (food) to elicit a specific behavior (salivation) (4, 5). Incredible, right?

With this discovery, Pavlov's dogs opened up a new world of learning and training. Now, we know we can condition animals to form associations with previously neutral stimuli and elicit an unconscious behavior. An animal cannot make itself salivate consciously. It is an involuntary response that occurs when the animal is anticipating food, which makes this discovery all the more fascinating.

A neutral stimulus is something external from the animal (learner) that does not cause any reaction, good or bad. The stimulus can be a sound, a flashing light, a vibration, anything that the animal can sense but does not cause much of a reaction. The Trainer can then find an appetitive stimulus, like food, to pair with the neutral stimulus. By offering both the appetitive and neutral stimulus close together or at the same time, the animal can then start to associate the neutral stimulus with the appetitive stimulus. After this has been practiced and established, the animal will then respond to the previously neutral stimulus as if it were the appetitive stimulus. However, it is important to note that the association must be reinforced periodically to maintain the association, or it will eventually be forgotten.

Neutral Stimulus (Bell)

Appetitive Stimulus (Food)

Behavior (Salivate)

Bell ≠ Salivate

Food = Salivate

Food + Bell = Salivate

Bell = Salivate

Classical Conditioning is the process that we use to begin Clicker Training!

Operant Conditioning

Thorndike and Skinner hold the most credit when it comes to formalizing Operant Conditioning in the Learning Theory (6, 7). Thorndike's theory tells us that the behavior that is reinforced gets repeated. For example, when you go to work or school, what is something that keeps you going back? In scientific words, what appetitive stimulus at work/school is reinforcing or encouraging you to return? This can be a variety of things, and it does not have to be one thing specifically. Common answers to that question might be money, friends, the activities you can participate in. The most important note of this is that the value of an appetitive stimulus is determined by the Learner. If the Learner does not like carrots but loves broccoli, then the carrot is not an appetitive stimulus for that Learner and should not be used when reinforcing behaviors.

As trainers, we cannot impose our own values of a stimulus onto the Learner because our perception of the world is very different from the Learner's perception.

Below is a chart of the Four Quadrants of Operant Conditioning. These quadrants form the practical application of operant conditioning: how to use the theory to actually train the animal. Using the Humane Hierarchy against the below chart, we can view Exit 3 (Positive Reinforcement), the Yield sign past Exit 4 (Negative Reinforcement and Negative Punishment), and the Stop sign at the top (Positive Punishment). Positive Reinforcement causes the least amount of stress in a training session, while Positive Punishment will inflict the most stress. Please read through Stress & LIMA to learn how stress affects learning.

Definitions:

Positive = the addition of a stimulus
Negative = the removal of a stimulus
Reinforcement = encouragement to increase a behavior
Punishment = discouragement to decrease a behavior
Aversive stimulus = something that the animal does not like or may cause him/her stress or discomfort
Appetitive stimulus = something that the animal likes, wants, or derives pleasure from

These theories also discuss the importance of building a reinforcement history for behaviors. What this means is that we cannot expect an animal to learn a behavior once and then be able to perform the behavior on cue every time after that. We must systematically build up behaviors through reinforcement, and this can be achieved in a few ways.

Shaping
Capturing
Targeting
Luring

These applications of the Learning Theory are further discussed in the Clicker Training section.

Sources:

Khalil, M., Prinsloo, P., & Slade, S. (2022). The use and application of learning theory in learning analytics: A scoping review. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 35(3), 573–594. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-022-09340-3
Kay, D., & Kibble, J. (2016). Learning theories 101: Application to everyday teaching and scholarship. Advances in Physiology Education, 40(1), 17–25. https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00132.2015
Brown, J. (2020). Using learning theory to shape learning experiences in health care education: Not scary at all! New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 2020(162), 81–89. https://doi.org/10.1002/tl.20393
Rehman, I., Mahabadi, N., Sanvictores, T., & Rehman, C. I. (2023, August 14). Classical conditioning. NCBI. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470326/
Eelen, P. (2018). Classical conditioning: Classical yet modern. Psychologica Belgica, 58(1), 196–211. https://doi.org/10.5334/pb.451
Nevin, J. A. (1999). Analyzing thorndike’s law of effect: The question of stimulus—response bonds. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 72(3), 447–450. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1999.72-447
Skinner, B. F. (1966). Contingencies of reinforcement in the design of a culture. Behavioral Science, 11(3), 159–166. https://doi.org/10.1002/bs.3830110302

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