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In scientific terms, water hardness is generally the amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium in water. But in layman's terms, you may notice water hardness when your hands still feel slimy after washing with soap and water, or when your drinking glasses at home become less than crystal clear. Learn a lot more about water hardness on the Water Science School site.


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The simple definition of water hardness is the amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium in the water. Hard water is high in dissolved minerals, largely calcium and magnesium. You may have felt the effects of hard water, literally, the last time you washed your hands. Depending on the hardness of your water, after using soap to wash you may have felt like there was a film of residue left on your hands. In hard water, soap reacts with the calcium (which is relatively high in hard water) to form "soap scum". When using hard water, more soap or detergent is needed to get things clean, be it your hands, hair, or your laundry.

But hard water can have some benefits, too. Humans need minerals to stay healthy, and the World Health Organization (WHO) states that drinking-water may be a contributor of calcium and magnesium in the diet and could be important for those who are marginal for calcium and magnesium intake.

Hardness is caused by compounds of calcium and magnesium, and by a variety of other metals. General guidelines for classification of waters are: 0 to 60 mg/L (milligrams per liter) as calcium carbonate is classified as soft; 61 to 120 mg/L as moderately hard; 121 to 180 mg/L as hard; and more than 180 mg/L as very hard.

Water systems using groundwater as a source are concerned with water hardness, since as water moves through soil and rock it dissolves small amounts of naturally-occurring minerals and carries them into the groundwater supply. Water is a great solvent for calcium and magnesium, so if the minerals are present in the soil around a water-supply well, hard water may be delivered to homes. Water hardness varies throughout the United States. In areas of the country where the water is relatively hard (see map below), industries might have to spend money to soften their water, as hard water can damage equipment. Hard water can even shorten the life of fabrics and clothes (does this mean that high-school students who live in areas with hard water keep up with the latest fashions since their clothes wear out faster?).

As the image of the inside of a water-supply pipe shows, long-term movement of hard water through a pipe can result in what is called scale buildup. Just as in the human body where blood vessels can be reduced in inside diameter due to cholesterol buildup, water pipes can gradually close up resulting in less water movement through the pipe and a lowering of water pressure.

Water hardness is based on major-ion chemistry concentrations. Major-ion chemistry in groundwater is relatively stable and generally does not change over time. Although this map illustrates data from 1975, these data have been found to be accurate and useful in current assessments.

A study from the National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Project assessed water-quality conditions for about 2,100 domestic wells across the United States. Water hardness was one water-quality parameter studied; results are shown in the map below.

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The authors find issues with most of the applications tested, including things you'd really hope would work, like LevelDB, HDFS, Zookeeper, and git. In a talk, one of the authors noted that the developers of sqlite have a very deep understanding of these issues, but even that wasn't enough to prevent all bugs. That speaker also noted that version control systems were particularly bad about this, and that the developers had a pretty lax attitude that made it very easy for the authors to find a lot of issues in their tools.The most common class of error was incorrectly assuming ordering between syscalls. The next most common class of error was assuming that syscalls were atomic2. These are fundamentally the same issues people run into when doing multithreaded programming. Correctly reasoning about re-ordering behavior and inserting barriers correctly is hard. But even though shared memory concurrency is considered a hard problem that requires great care, writing to files isn't treated the same way, even though it's actually harder in a number of ways.

This isn't to say that filesystem semantics aren't documented anywhere. Between lwn and LKML, it's possible to get a good picture of how things work. But digging through all of that is hard enough that it's still quite common for there to be long, uncertain discussions on how things work. A lot of the information out there is wrong, and even when information was right at the time it was posted, it often goes out of date.

Where's this documented? Oh, in some mailing list post 6-8 years ago (which makes it 12-14 years from today). I don't mean to pick on filesystem devs. The fs devs whose posts I've read are quite polite compared to LKML's reputation; they generously spend a lot of their time responding to basic questions and I'm impressed by how patient the expert fs devs are with askers, but it's hard for outsiders to troll through a decade and a half of mailing list postings to figure out which ones are still valid and which ones have been obsoleted!

It would be really great to see an updated version of the paper, and in one presentation someone in the audience asked if there was more up to date information. The presenter replied that they'd be interested in knowing what things look like now, but that it's hard to do that kind of work in academia because grad students don't want to repeat work that's been done before, which is pretty reasonable given the incentives they face. Doing replications is a lot of work, often nearly as much work as the original paper, and replications usually give little to no academic credit. This is one of the many cases where the incentives align very poorly with producing real world impact. be457b7860

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