This page is in support of my Mind-Blowing Tour of The Moon videos.  Here you'll find the Lunar Sight-Seeing Map, script to my videos, and Lunar Highlights.

Exploring The Moon Script

Part 1: History and Natural Wonders 

[Historical Context]

It's incredible to think that less than 70 years separates us from the very first artificial satellite launched into Earth orbit. Sputnik, launched by the USSR, on coincidentally, October 4th, 1957 ushered in a new era for humanity. The Soviets followed up that accomplishment by putting Yuri Gagarin into orbit less than 4 years later.

The United States responded by forming NASA in 1958, and launching their own rockets under the Mercury Program. Then, in May of 1961, the US set their sites on The Moon. It was on September 12, 1962, that President John F. Kennedy delivered the famous "We Choose to go to The Moon" speech, a dream that would be realized when The Eagle landed with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin in July of 1969.

The entirety of the Apollo program spanned a little over one decade and ended with Apollo 17 in December of 1972.

The Apollo program may have gotten most of the attention, but it wasn't the whole story. Prior to Apollo 11, there were a number of robotic missions carried out by both the United States, and The Soviet Union. The Americans sent the Ranger, Lunar Orbiter, and Surveyor probes and robotic missions, while the Soviets had their Luna Program.

Much has happened since, including humanity sending probes to the other planets in our Solar System, and beyond, including a Tesla Roadster for some reason. We have pushed the limits of space survival and engineering closer to home with an almost constant presence of orbital space stations. We experimented with reusable space delivery systems, and sent up incredible tools of exploration. And starting in the 2010's we have been sending robotic missions back to The Moon.

China's Chang'e 3 landed in December of 2013. India sent up the Chandrayaan 3 lander in July of 2023, the same year as Russia attempted to land Luna 25. Both India and Russia hoped to land near the south pole, no doubt looking for signs of water ice.

[Natural Features of the Moon]

Our journey begins with key features of The Moon itself.

You'll notice that not all images of The Moon are the same. In fact, some look much better and more detailed than others. This is because there is actually a best time when looking at certain features and landmarks. You see, when the Moon is full, there is very little contrast on the surface because the light of the Sun falls flat. It is a great time to see the Moon in its entirety, but so great if you are looking for breathtaking views. For the purpose of this video, I'm going to keep to images I had taken when the Moon was full, this way we can navigate anywhere we want, at the expense of those really cool shadows which really make the Moon look striking. If you are interested, I will include a link to the best times to view each of the key locations we'll be visiting in the description of this video.

Early observers had no way of knowing what the dark splotches on the Moon were. It was theorized at one point that they might be vast oceans and seas, and that is how they were named. We now know that these darker regions on the Moon's surface formed when massive impacts created large basins that were later flooded by basaltic lava.

The largest of these dark regions is called The Ocean of Storms, the Oceanus Procellarum, and is the only area which we call an 'ocean'. Next to it is the Sea of Rains, or the Mare Imbrium. This large spot over to the right, is the Sea of Serenity, or Mare Serenitatis. Next we have the famous Sea of Tranquility, where we'll find Tranquility Base, the landing site of Apollo 11. Its Latin name is the Mare Tranquillitatis. To the right of The Sea of Tranquility we find the Sea of Crises, or Mare Crisium, and further below is the Sea of Fertility, the Mare Fecunditatis. Heading back over to the Ocean of Storms, we also have the Mare Cognitum, the site of a number of missions. There are several other seas, such as the Mare Nubium, and Mare Humorum, both visually close to Mare Cognitum. There are also Mare Vaporum and Mare Nectaris, both smaller basins that have not been direct landing sites for major lunar missions.

[Major Lunar Craters and Landforms]

Besides the Mare, there are several very cool, enormous craters on the surface which are visible with almost any telescope or decent set of binoculars.

[Tycho Crater]

This here is Tycho crater, one of the most prominent and easiest features to spot on the Moon, especially when it’s full.

What makes Tycho stand out immediately are these bright streaks radiating outward in all directions. These are called ray systems, and they were formed when an asteroid struck the Moon, blasting material across the surface for thousands of kilometers.

Tycho is actually a relatively young crater, at about 100 million years old, which is why its features are still so sharp and well defined. If you look closely toward the center, you can even make out a small peak — that’s a mountain formed when the surface rebounded upward after the impact.

While the rays look best during a full Moon like this, if you observe Tycho when the Sun is lower in the lunar sky — near the terminator — the shadows along the crater walls and central peak become much more dramatic, really giving you a sense of its depth and structure.

[Copernicus Crater]

Next we'll look at the Copernicus Crater, one of the most impressive and well-defined craters on the Moon, and a favourite target for amateur astronomers.

Copernicus is located in the Ocean of Storms, and is much larger than Tycho, spanning about 93 kilometers across. What really makes it stand out are its terraced walls and complex internal structure, which are the result of the immense energy released during the impact that formed it.

If you look closely, you can see multiple peaks rising from the center of the crater. These central peaks formed in much the same way as Tycho’s, where the surface rebounded upward immediately after the impact. The crater walls themselves appear stepped or layered, which gives Copernicus a very three-dimensional appearance, especially when the Sun is low in the sky.

Copernicus also has its own system of rays, although they are not quite as extensive or bright as those from Tycho. Still, they are clearly visible during a full Moon and help highlight the relatively young age of the crater.

When observing Copernicus near the terminator, the shadows cast along its walls and central peaks create one of the most striking views available on the lunar surface. It is one of the best examples of a complex impact crater, and a great target whether you are using binoculars or a telescope.

[Aristarchus Plateau and Vallis Schröteri]

Over here we have another striking feature called the Aristarchus Plateau and Vallis Schröteri.

The Aristarchus Plateau is a raised region sitting within the Ocean of Storms, and it stands out as one of the brightest areas on the entire Moon. At its edge is the crater Aristarchus itself, which is actually one of the brightest craters you can see, especially when the Moon is near full.

What makes this area particularly interesting is that it’s not just shaped by impacts, but also by volcanic activity. The plateau is thought to be one of the most geologically complex regions on the Moon, with evidence of ancient lava flows and volcanic processes.

Running through the plateau is Vallis Schröteri, often referred to as the “Cobra Head” because of the way it begins. This is a massive winding channel, known as a sinuous rille, formed by flowing lava rather than by an impact. It stretches for over 150 kilometers and is the largest feature of its kind on the Moon.

Under higher magnification, especially when the Sun is low, you can trace the path of this channel as it snakes across the surface, giving you a rare glimpse into the Moon’s volcanic past.

[Montes Apenninus]

This is Montes Apenninus, one of the most prominent mountain ranges on the Moon, and one that is closely tied to the formation of the Sea of Rains, or Mare Imbrium.

These mountains were formed when a massive impact created the Imbrium basin billions of years ago. The force of that impact uplifted the crust, forming this long, curved mountain range that marks the southeastern edge of the basin.

The range stretches for over 600 kilometers, and some of its peaks rise as high as 5 kilometers, making them among the tallest on the lunar surface.

If you look closely, especially when the Sun is low, you can see the rugged texture of the terrain and the long shadows cast by the peaks, which really help to define the shape of the range. This is one of the best places on the Moon to get a sense of scale, as you are looking at a mountain range formed by one of the most powerful impact events in the Moon’s history.

[Shackleton Crater and the Lunar South Pole]

Our last stop of natural formations is Shackleton Crater and the lunar South Pole.

Shackleton Crater sits almost exactly at the Moon’s south pole, and because of that unique position, its interior never sees sunlight. The Sun always skims along the horizon here, which means the crater floor is in permanent shadow.

These permanently shadowed regions are of great interest because they are some of the coldest places in the solar system, and scientists believe they may contain deposits of water ice that have been preserved for billions of years.

At the same time, the rims of nearby craters can receive near-continuous sunlight, making this region especially important for future exploration. It offers a combination of potential resources and relatively stable lighting conditions.

This is one of the main reasons why modern missions, including the Artemis program, are targeting the lunar south pole. It represents the next phase of lunar exploration, whith the goal of establishing a longer-term presence on the Moon.

Part 2: Human and Robotic Exploration Landing and Crash Sites!

[Early Robotic Missions]

[Ranger 7 — Mare Cognitum]

Ranger 7 was the first fully successful U.S. lunar impact mission. On its way down, it recorded over 4,000 high-resolution images and proved that close-up imaging of the Moon was possible. Ranger 7, or what remains of it, lies here in Mare Cognitum.

The Ranger Program, which ran from 1961 to 1965, was NASA’s first serious attempt to reach the Moon with robotic spacecraft. Early missions focused on testing rockets and navigation systems, while later missions were designed to transmit images as they descended toward the surface.

Although some Ranger missions failed, Ranger 7 succeeded on all counts, and the slew of images it returned helped pave the way for future landing missions.

[Surveyor 3 — Oceanus Procellarum]

Over here in Oceanus Procellarum, we find Surveyor 3. This was one of the first spacecraft to successfully land on the Moon and operate on the surface, sending back detailed images and data about the lunar soil.

The Surveyor Program followed Ranger and ran between 1966 and 1968. Its goal was to prove that a spacecraft could land safely and that the surface was strong enough to support future missions.

Surveyor 3 became especially important a couple of years later, when Apollo 12 landed nearby. Astronauts Pete Conrad and Alan Bean walked over to the lander, examined it, and brought parts of it back to Earth — the first time humans visited a spacecraft on another world.

[Lunar Orbiter 1 — Crash Site]

Somewhere in this region we have the crash site of Lunar Orbiter 1.

Before the Apollo missions, NASA needed a way to carefully study the lunar surface from above. Between 1966 and 1967, five spacecraft of the Lunar Orbiter Program were sent into orbit around the Moon to photograph potential landing sites. These missions captured detailed images of the surface, allowing engineers to evaluate terrain features like slopes, craters, and boulder fields. The data collected by the Lunar Orbiter missions played a critical role in selecting safe landing sites for the Apollo program.

Lunar Orbiter 1 is especially well known for capturing the first photograph of Earth rising above the Moon’s horizon, which is one of the most iconic space images in history.

After completing its mission, the spacecraft was intentionally directed to impact the Moon, which is why we mark its crash site here.

[Soviet Robotic Missions]

[Luna 16 — Mare Fecunditatis]

If we move over to Mare Fecunditatis, we come to the landing site of Luna 16.

This was one of the Soviet Union’s robotic sample return missions, and it successfully collected lunar soil and brought it back to Earth — all without human involvement.

The Luna Program, which began in 1959, ran in parallel with American efforts and achieved several major milestones, including the first impact on the Moon and the first images of the far side.

Luna 16, along with later missions like Luna 20 and Luna 24, demonstrated that fully automated missions could land, collect samples, and return them safely to Earth.

[Apollo Missions]

[Apollo 11 — Mare Tranquillitatis]

If we move back over to Mare Tranquillitatis, we find Tranquility Base, the landing site of Apollo 11.

This was the first time humans set foot on the Moon. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed here in July of 1969, while Michael Collins remained in orbit above.

The site was chosen because it was relatively smooth and safe for landing, and during their time on the surface, the astronauts collected samples and deployed scientific instruments.

This mission fulfilled President Kennedy’s goal and marked one of the most significant achievements in human history.

[Apollo 12 — Oceanus Procellarum (near Surveyor 3)]

Not far from Surveyor 3, also in Oceanus Procellarum, is the landing site of Apollo 12.

This mission demonstrated precision landing, touching down within walking distance of the earlier robotic probe.

Pete Conrad and Alan Bean visited Surveyor 3, photographed it, and brought parts of it back to Earth, while Richard Gordon remained in orbit.

It showed that NASA could land exactly where it intended, opening the door to more ambitious exploration.

[Apollo 14 — Fra Mauro (near Mare Cognitum)]

Just north of Mare Cognitum, we find the Fra Mauro region, where Apollo 14 landed.

This mission was originally planned for Apollo 13, but after that mission was aborted, Apollo 14 returned to complete the objectives.

Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell explored this area, which contains material ejected from the massive Imbrium impact. Their work helped scientists better understand the Moon’s geological history.

[Apollo 15 — Hadley–Apennine Region]

If we move up toward the Montes Apenninus, we come to the landing site of Apollo 15.

This mission marked the beginning of extended exploration, with astronauts using a Lunar Rover to travel much greater distances.

David Scott and James Irwin explored the base of the Apennine Mountains and the nearby Hadley Rille, collecting a wide range of samples and dramatically expanding the scope of lunar exploration.

[Apollo 16 — Descartes Highlands]

Moving over to the highlands south of Mare Tranquillitatis, we find the landing site of Apollo 16.

This mission focused on the bright, rugged terrain of the lunar highlands. Astronauts John Young and Charles Duke explored the area and confirmed that it was formed primarily by impacts, rather than volcanic activity.

[Apollo 17 — Taurus–Littrow Valley]

Finally, if we move up toward the Taurus–Littrow Valley, we arrive at the landing site of Apollo 17.

This was the final mission of the Apollo program and the most ambitious. Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt spent over 22 hours on the surface, collecting the largest sample return of any mission.

Schmitt, a trained geologist, helped identify key features, including volcanic materials that provided new insight into the Moon’s history.

Apollo 17 remains the last time humans have walked on the Moon.

[Modern Return to the Moon]

[Chang’e 3 — Mare Imbrium]

Returning to Mare Imbrium, we find the landing site of China’s Chang’e 3 mission.

This mission, launched in 2013, marked the first soft landing on the Moon in nearly 40 years. It deployed a rover and conducted a range of scientific studies, demonstrating that modern lunar exploration was underway again.

[Chandrayaan-3 — South Pole Region]

If we move down toward the south pole, we come to the landing site of India’s Chandrayaan-3 mission.

This mission successfully landed in 2023 near the lunar south pole, a region believed to contain water ice. Its rover explored the surface and collected valuable data about the local environment.

Near this location is the crash site of Russia's Luna 25. That mission was aimed at the same general area near the south pole, but unfortunately failed during its final descent and impacted the surface, which leads me to some honourable mentions which I will not be covering. These are private missions which met with varying degrees of success:

### **1. ispace HAKUTO-R Mission 1 (Japan, April 2023)**

* **Company:** ispace, a private Japanese firm.

* **Spacecraft:** *Series 1 Lander* (HAKUTO-R Mission 1).

* **Launch:** December 2022 aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9.

* **Goal:** Soft-land in **Atlas Crater** (Mare Frigoris region) and deploy small rovers for Japan and the UAE.

* **Outcome:** The lander lost contact during final descent and **crashed** on April 25 2023.

* **Notes:** Despite the loss, ispace demonstrated deep-space operations, navigation, and long-duration lunar flight — a near-miss that validated most of its tech for the next mission (M2, planned 2026).

--- 

### **2. Astrobotic Peregrine Mission 1 (USA, January 2024)**

* **Company:** Astrobotic Technology, based in Pittsburgh.

* **Mission:** First flight under NASA’s **CLPS** program, intended to deliver five NASA payloads and several commercial ones to **Sinus Vicis** region.

* **Outcome:** A **propellant leak** shortly after separation prevented lunar orbit insertion.

* The lander re-entered Earth’s atmosphere and burned up after 10 days.

* **Partial success:** Successful launch, communications, and some payload commissioning; failure occurred during cruise phase.

---

### **3. Intuitive Machines IM-1 “Odysseus” (USA, February 2024)** 

* **Company:** Intuitive Machines (Houston, TX).

* **Mission:** First **U.S. soft landing** on the Moon since Apollo.

* **Landing site:** Near **Malapert A Crater**, close to the lunar south pole (23.1° S, 50.3° E).

* **Outcome:** The lander reached the surface on **February 22 2024** and **tipped over** on touchdown — ending up on its side.

  * Despite that, it remained operational for about a week and returned imagery and scientific data.

* **Significance:** First commercially built lander to reach the surface intact and return usable data — effectively a “qualified success.”

* **Nickname:** *Odysseus* (or “Odie”).

---