Selected Blogs, Articles and Essays

The changing geography of the world due to global warming has given rise to newer geostrategic apprehensions. As the Canadian Tundra burns, the Arctic is slowly turning from a barrier among the warring nations into a strategic location. Eyes of the global powers are set on the North Pole while the United Nations pushes for a Convention on the Law of the Sea to prevent a future full of turmoil. The Foreign Press Association interviewed, Arne O. Holm, the founder and editor of the High North News and discussed the issue in detail. Arne O. Holm highlighted how in recent years the debate around the Arctic has shifted from being a hunt for the resources to a security issue for the great powers and especially the circumpolar countries.

Holm told the FPA that a melting Northern ice promises a shorter and cheaper route for ships than the south. Climate change has made it easier and more direct for ships to travel through the Northern Route. Although, International Shipping companies deny any plans to sail through the north because of climatic repercussion and fears of further degeneration of the north. However, Holm called it a mere act of ‘Green Washing’ and when the time comes, it will be all about profit and business. Furthermore, major powers including USA, China, Russia and Canada are building icebreakers to cross the North Pole. Holm told the FPA that:

“It seems like everybody is starting to build ice-breakers when there is no more ice to break, ‘cause of the climate change… it seems like some of these so-called ice-breakers are more meant for carrying more military equipment than they are to commercial shipping. A paradox.”

Holm believes that in a few years, there will be no need for ice-breakers because most of the ice will melt, clearing the passages. Mr. Holm expressed his belief that decision-makers do not believe in climate change, and they will continue to build their icebreakers.

Upon being asked about the oil exploration in the high North, Holm said that the search for resources has been discontinued because the countries could not find enough oil in the North as they thought. Now, only Russia and Norway are left drilling for oil, and they have been forced to cooperate in this operation because Norway has built its oil field very close to the Russian border, just across the Barents Sea. However, Holm expressed that drilling for oil in North is no longer commercially feasible. This is a concern for people in states that depend on oil production such as Alaska. Whereas, Norway is in a position to say no to oil drilling because it only makes up a small portion of its economy.

The Editor of High North News told the FPA about the concerns of the indigenous people of the Arctic states. He claimed that they are a respected and well-organized part of the Arctic Council. The indigenous people’s business is associated with the frozen land and their freedom over their lands, which they advocate for in the Arctic Council. But the situation is not the same for all the indigenous folks. For instance, Holm shared his observation that the indigenous people in Norway are well facilitated, respected and accepted so they are active in fora like the Arctic Council. Whereas, the indigenous people of Alaska, are deprived of basic facilities like roads and welfare in their villages so their foremost concerns revolve around these things.

Arne O Holm told the FPA that the breakdown of the global political and business cooperation has raised concerns among the people in the High North. This is because their export markets have been affected because of the conflict between Russia and the USA, especially since the Trump Era. Furthermore, the concerns around fisheries and their future have given rise to nationalism in the Arctic. Fisheries are very regulated businesses in the Arctic states and can even lead to greater tensions between the states. For example, Britain and Norway are in a conflict around who is allowed to fish and how much. Whereas there are also examples of cooperation on the matter such as the Russian and Norwegian agreement on how much fish they are allowed to take out of the Barents Sea.

Holm told the FPA that unlike other organizations, the Arctic Council has its own stakeholders involved in the negotiations and these members a very dependent on each other. This is also a ray of hope for warring nations as the United States and Russia sit together in the Arctic Council, as neighbors and not just as enemies. On the other hand, there is an evident new wave of militarization of Greenland because of its renewed strategic importance. The United States is re-establishing its forces on the Greenland and Norway, while Danish forces have also decided to militarize Greenland more. This has also raised voice for an independent Greenland, however, according to Holm, the biggest barrier to an independent Greenland is the economy. In order to gain independence from Denmark, it will need an independent economy which it cannot afford yet.

In the interview with FPA, Arne O Holm talked about the increased flow of people away from the High North. This is because of climate change and increased militarization in the world. Mr. Holm discussed that an increased militarization leads to more climate change, and this is driving people out of their High North homes. The main concern for him is that there are not enough political and economic solutions that would keep the people in the area. If there are no people, there would be no need for military at all. The world needs to come together and give significance to the climate change debate as it is vital to the life and economy of the people in the High North. It is a turning point in the history of the world, where we find ourselves in control of the future political architecture of the world. But this control may not last very long if the climate change becomes irreversible.

Enlightenment has been contested by sociologists for its dual affect on the civilizations and people around the world. The ideas of enlightenment have been addressed and countered in detail by the historians and social scientists because of its limitedness and inability to accommodate the rest of the world. It seemed from the immediate actions of the ‘enlightened’ people after their transformation that this too was a privilege reserved for them. The horrors of colonialism, imperialism, world wars and capitalism that followed the enlightenment pose that the very ideologies that empowered some, exploited the rest. There is no doubt that enlightenment has enabled the rapid industrialisation, growth of economies and advancement of mankind into the more rational and scientific realm, yet it has or at least its followers have afforded much cruelty and exploitation to the non-European world.

Carl Becker (1932), in his book The Heavenly City relates the eighteenth-century philosophers and their thought with the thirteenth century Christian philosophies as expounded by St. Thomas Aquinas. He claims that the enlightenment philosophers were not much different from the Christian ideas and had only expressed a similar philosophy in a different way. This might be an extreme critique of the enlightenment philosophies, yet it does highlight the non-universal nature of the enlightenment ideas. The enlightenment did not include the rest of the world and this led to their ‘otherization’. Thus, making the malice of colonialism and exploitative nature of capitalism seem less harmful. Richard Popkin also highlights this paradoxical aspect of enlightenment where he claims that from the heart of enlightenment came the dark and not-so-enlightened theories of inferiority of non-Europeans. In a similar vein, Edward Saeed explains how the enlightened west felt like it understood the rest of the world and gave birth to ‘Orientalism’, which is nothing but their own perception of what the East is like. The true contours of the rest of the world were either unknown or deliberately ignored by the enlightened ones in order to carry on with their visions.

The enlightenment has also led to progress which is just another name for consumerist capitalism where humans are reduced to manipulated and highly surveilled consumers who have the capacity to make the rich richer. The capitalist industries have distorted what was really precious, the character, ethos, morals and the meaningfulness of life. All the satisfaction that a man may achieve has been attached to the external factors or things, there is little inward thought. Enlightenment progress has therefore cost the mankind a lot more than what it could ever have anticipated. If one goes deeper into what followed the enlightenment, then on one hand one witnesses the exploitation of the poor by the capitalists and on the other the usurpation of human rights by the communists. Michel Foucalt, however, supports the view that enlightenment never ended, it is a part of the continuous evolutionary process that mankind is undergoing. I agree with Foucalt in his views, but it only reinforces the opinion that Enlightenment was not the one glorious panacea to all problems of mankind. If it all, it was the white man’s elixir.

Another argument against the dual nature of Enlightenment has been of racism and slavery. Although, enlightenment thinkers promoted republicanism which then became a basis to end institutionalised slavery in the American continent, yet in reality racism and the harms of slavery transcended centuries past the enlightenment era. It took a lot more than enlightenment to tell the Eurocentric thinkers that all men and women are equal. Kramer and Ikeda explain that “The Enlightenment scientists rationalized that ‘subhumans’ were genetically inferior, and behaviourally irrational (of course, according to the criteria they devised). They created intelligence/power in their own image. How convenient” (Kramer and Ikeda, 2009, pp. 90). There is justification within enlightenment for the superiority of western knowledge, concepts and education that automatically categorised all other races as different and inferior.

To sum up, Enlightenment has been a mindset and ideology that has propagated certain views and social constructs that logically benefited its creators. It would be unfair to discard the role of enlightenment in the overall advancement of humankind and knowledge. Yet, like all ideas in the world, this too should be scrutinized for its relevance, authenticity, inclusiveness and fairness. A critical assessment of enlightenment would only add to the field of knowledge by opening doors for new breakthroughs, making way for diverse and more acceptable understandings of the societies.

Energy Crisis in an ever-expanding global population is being researched by scientists around the world, however, few have accomplished the goal of providing long-lasting and serious solutions. One of these projects is the Beyond Earth Institute, dedicated to researching and creating a solar power solution to the global energy crisis. The fundamental idea behind the Beyond Earth project is to harness the solar power from the space and delivering it to the Earth, where it is needed most. The Beyond Earth institute also works to create such policies and reports that would help in bringing this project to life. In an interview with the President of the Foreign Press Association, Ian Williams, Tony DeTora, Co-founder and Vice President for Policy Coherence at Beyond Earth Institute and John Mankins, adviser to NASA and CalTech's Jet Propulsion Laboratory discussed the project in detail.

John Mankins told the FPA about the growing energy needs of the world by the year 2100. There is an urgent need to create energy solutions and United States is in a position to lead the civil or commercial development of space solar power. John Mankins stressed that we need to transition the current major economies toward net-zero carbon by 2050 in order to keep the planet sustainable. In addition, we need to build such solutions that would provide sustainable energy to the nearly 6 billion projected population in the emerging economies of the world by the year 2100. These include India, South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, Caribbean and the Mediterranean. The idea behind space solar power is that harnessing the solar energy right in space means that the Sun is always there and there are no obstacles such as bad weather. In addition, according to John Mankins, this energy source would provide affordable, relocatable, long-lasting and non-stop energy to anywhere in the world.

John Mankins told the FPA how the Beyond Earth Solar Power system operates. A Solar Power harnessing satellite would be placed high in an orbit in a way that it would be exposed to the Sun around the year. In addition, if the satellite is placed high enough, it would be able to deliver energy to a variety of places on Earth. On the ground, large Ground Stations, around 6 kilometres in diameter, would be placed to receive wireless energy signals coming from the satellite in the form of microwaves. The energy received would then travel to the homes and businesses using the existing infrastructure. This energy is meant to be low-cost with zero carbon emissions and will be available at all hours. Emphasizing the viability of the project, Mankins told FPA that the Physics proof of the working of the Solar Power System requires just under 500 dollars and around 2 months of work. On the other hand, other energy solutions such as thermonuclear plants require billions of dollars and years of work just to prove its Physics. In addition, newer space launch technologies have lowered the cost of space launch by 90% in the last decade. Furthermore, the cost of space hardware has been reduced by 99% in recent years with multiple established technologies such as Starlink and Kuiper systems that have proven the ability to create space tech at scale in a radically lower budget. All of this makes Solar Power Satellite systems a possible solution to the energy crisis of the world.

The timeline given by Mankins for the project plans to launch its first pilot project by late twenty twenties with a potential to scale to 1 GW plant, providing energy at commercially competitive prices. In the interview with FPA, Tony DeTora highlighted the policy plan and requirements to make the project possible. The aim of Beyond Earth Institute is to have the United States government formulate a National Policy Statement for the project. DeTora states that,

“Space Solar Power (SSP) is vital to meeting the climate, national security, commercial, space exploration and space science objectives of the United States”.

DeTora highlighted the strategic importance of the project for the USA and how commercial and international partnerships in the project would aid in meeting that objective. Furthermore, he added that the project would have three basic principles at its foundation: Safety, Security and Sustainability. DeTora highlighted the work project and national goals of the project, which are a wide range of ends from providing energy at homes to demonstrating the ability to build a lunar plant of at least One Megawatt electric.

In the interview, the guests also discussed the potential risks associated with the microwaves coming from the Satellites. They claimed that these microwaves are already in use by telecommunication services and at most they would be able to increase the temperature of the objects exposed to them. However, these things are still under study for improvement and risk minimalization.

The Space Solar Power project gives a glimpse of a possible sustainable future for mankind. It is neither too early nor too late to be investing in such large scale, viable and durable solutions to the most complicated problems that humanity faces today. We can only hope that these futuristic projects that once could only have been part of science fiction prove successful and sustainable for the planet and the people.

On the Interview of Alina Sukolskova with Foreign Press Association

When war hits, all people are equally affected, and it creates a wave of resistance across the social strata. Artists, being one of the most sensitive groups in any nation and vulnerable to economic crisis are among the first to face the horrors of war. They can no longer hold their gigs but they have taken to volunteerism and activism to fight alongside their forces. Ukrainian artists around the world are finding ways to support their country in these times of war. In an interview with Foreign Press Association, Ukrainian born dancer Alina Sokulska expressed her feelings as a Ukrainian artist in the current crisis and shared what helps them resist each morning. Being the first generation to be born in a free Ukraine, Sokulska expressed her pride as a citizen of a country free from authoritarianism. She also expressed how the Revolution of Dignity of 2013 uplifted their national pride and allowed them to build such a strong national identity that is helping them now to resist the current war. The Revolution of Dignity was a people’s protest against a government that upon pressure from Moscow would not allow Ukraine to apply for a European Union membership. Sokulska says it was then that they realized who they were through their own eyes ‘not the eyes of the colonizer, of a dominant culture, a dominant neighbor’. In a post-colonial context, Sokulska’s words describe their struggle in the 30 years since independence and how their country evolved to embrace their own language, culture and identity.

One of the narratives that Putin is using in the war is to so-called ‘save’ the Russian speaking people in Ukraine. Which is why the young generation is moving toward speaking Ukrainian instead of Russian language. This is an expression of strength and resilience of a people against their colonizer who time and again disrupts their peace and lays claim to their land. Sokulska told FPA that her people are resisting on every level and on all fronts, and she reassured that Ukrainians would never give up. From a military soldier to artists, everyone is playing their role and finding ways to help their country. One of her artist friends in Kiev is using his platform ‘Am I Jazz?’ to raise funds and support Ukrainian musicians in this time of crisis. She told that anyone can donate and help the Ukrainian musicians in need during these tough times. Ukrainian musicians are volunteering in all big cities and are at the forefront of the crisis and try their best to uplift the public morale.

Sokulska describes that the war has affected the entire country and there is no safe space left in Ukraine. In cities exposed to military action such as Mariupol’, the people face a humanitarian crisis marked with killings, rapes and live under occupation and fusillades of Russian military. Sokulska stressed that it is important to mention these things because this is the reality of these places, while in the places less affected by military action, anxiety of war prevails. The dancer also expressed that the Ukrainians are more united than ever and related a famous Ukrainian meme that says, ‘when you ask me how my family is, my family now is 47 million’. This shows how the Ukrainian people are also finding strength in humor and unity during the war. Sokulska told FPA that people are not trying to take advantage of the situation to move to Europe although Europe is welcoming them, instead people choose to stay and those who are moving express their wish to come back as soon as possible.

Sokulska shares that living in Barcelona she has been feeling the ‘survivor’s guilt’. Which is also what motivated her to start a fundraiser named ‘Artists for Ukraine’ that particularly focuses on the provision of first aid medications. She expressed that in war, one has to focus and play a single role. She also uses her dance classes to raise funds because that way she is also returning something to the donators. Diaspora Ukrainians are using their art to raise funds for the volunteers at home so they can better meet their daily needs. On the other hand, civilians including women have chosen to stay and join the reserve units of Armed forces, the Territorial Defense Force. In these units, people learn and train how to protect their towns and villages in case of an attack. Sokulska also shared how love during the war remains strong as women choose to fight alongside their boyfriends who wish to join forces.

The Ukrainian artist shared with FPA that she gets her information about the crisis and war from Ukrainian channels who swore to not indulge in aggressive propaganda during war but to only report the truth. Sokulska told that war has brought the people and their government closer, and they trust the official channels of information. The Ukrainian media has also come together to run a 24/7 marathon in Ukrainian language to report the war. Alina Sokulska urged the world community to follow Ukrainian people on social media in order to know the reality on ground. It is the only way to get credible information about war and find ways to support the people.

Academics claim that we live in an ‘Era of Manipulation’, a time of information floods making it impossible to sift through the news and find the truth. It is very unsettling to know that this information flood that springs right in the palm of hands and influences behaviors, attitudes and perceptions possesses no set credibility. The truth about people is distorted, misrepresented or worse completely altered; situations are given a good or bad taste to get desired response. These things may have been inconsequential a few decades ago with limited resources of communication, however, today it has the power to define idols, attack enemies, carve reputations and even destroy lives. The more popular reaction to these circumstances is an attack on media and especially social media. However, it would be more appropriate to check the rules and codes of reporting instead of attacking the means of communication. Ethical reporting is the panacea to many modern issues including increasing hate, intolerance, suicide rates and psychological problems.

Journalists are guided by various codes of journalism to impart the truth in their writing, photography, filming and reporting. Journalists have the power to shape opinions and perceptions, in a democratic world this is a powerful tool. With this great power, their responsibility is also immense with an obligation to serve the public by ethical reporting. There is more to an image or an article than its newsworthiness or ability to go viral, when there is another human involved the rights of that human are also automatically involved. The picture is not just the art of photographer but also the story of the one being documented. This involvement of the other person includes their right of choice, dignity, freedom, will and speech. Therefore, it is paramount to a good journalistic culture to report ethically the sole truth with consideration of rights of all those who are a part of their story.

The debate about ethics in journalism usually begins and ends with plagiarism, copyrights and creative freedom, which is a huge problem itself but it is grim that people seldom point out the ethical points of any visual or written report. The silent absorption of all that becomes viral has also negatively affected human behavior by desensitizing masses against many great contemporary issues. Wars, terrorism, bombing, mass shootings are simply distasteful not horrible, terrifying and serious anymore. As long as the war is outside the borders, no one has to bother. In fact and sadly, it has become entertaining for those who are addicted to the news. This negative culture of reporting is harming mental health of masses.

It is significant to report ethically and consider the dignity of the people in the story. There could be life-long implications for someone in the picture such as bullying, disapproval of community, distress, depression etc. There are uncountable incidents around the world, where tabloid writers, freelance photographers, even famous journalists and photographers have put the lives of common people in danger through unethical reporting and many such news have even led to suicides. From a broader perspective, journalists have the power to shape the image of whole races, countries and communities as well. The language, choice of words, tone of writing, analogies, metaphors and other embellishments that add life to the writing should be picked after consideration of ethics and morals. The journalist’s personal bias can influence these things, however, a reporter must commit to impartial reporting of a story. It is a complicated task to cover events objectively while dealing with the subjects in a dignified and emotional manner. The art of reporting is in the perfection of this balance between objective storytelling without compromising the dignity of subjects. There are certainly such platforms that maintain this critical balance.

There are many codes of conduct for journalists, some are from independent journalist organizations, communities and media houses while others are advocated by international organizations such as UNICEF’s ethical reporting guidelines for reporting about children and young people. These principles by UNICEF not only protect the victims but also juvenile criminals. This code advises to always protect the identity of any victim or perpetrator of sexual abuse, charged or convicted of crime, HIV positive child and child combatant. Furthermore, in all other cases consent for showing identity should be secured first. The government backed media or heavily sponsored storytelling can shape an issue a certain way to catch viewers. However, as we have learnt in a couple of decades that there can be no limit to how far this inappropriate written and visual representation of violence and incidents can go, it is better to not condone it at all.

These codes exist around the world, but there is an increasing need to make these codes binding. Credibility in this era of manipulation is itself a matter of a few stories well marketed. Thus, there should be legal protection and supervision of journalistic activities to cover all areas that are still ambiguous and make room for unethical reporting.

References:

ASHA. “Issues in Ethics: Ethical Reporting.” American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2020. https://www.asha.org/practice/ethics/ethical-reporting/#:~:text=Ethical%20reporting%20is%20a%20process%20of%20transparency.&text=Reporting%20ethically%20requires%20you%20to.

Master Class. “What Is Ethics in Journalism? Learn about Journalism Ethics with Tips from Legendary Journalist Bob Woodward.” Masterclass, November 8, 2020. https://www.masterclass.com/articles/what-is-ethics-in-journalism-learn-about-journalism-ethics-with-tips-from-legendary-journalist-bob-woodward#what-are-ethics-in-journalism.

Tanner, Jason. “Ethics, Dignity and Responsibility in Visual Journalism.” Medium, May 5, 2017. https://medium.com/@Jason_Tanner/ethics-dignity-and-responsibility-in-visual-journalism-d321dec1ab11.

UNICEF. “Ethical Guidelines for Reporting on Children.” www.unicef.org. Accessed February 22, 2021. https://www.unicef.org/montenegro/en/ethical-guidelines-reporting-children.

It is claimed to be ancient, it has names taken from the Hindu pantheon, a culture, a career and definitely a remarkable sight. Kushti or Mud-Wrestling is an indigenous Indian sport, dating back thousands of years and is still alive in the modern world. Mud-wrestlers revere the sport that is attributed to Hindu gods and heroes. The Kushti has had its golden days when it spread across the Indo-Pak subcontinent, now it is fading with traces left in some areas of Pakistan and India. Kolkata is one of the places left with Kushti Akharas. An Akhara is the school, the lodging, the training and wrestling place for wrestlers called Pehlwans. To a Pehlwan, Akhara is the temple where he prays, he works, he learns and he wrestles. Young boys following their father’s footsteps or inspiration join for training and spend their lives on the Akhara. However, the modern world has caused many changes, the boys now go to public schools and are even forced to do other jobs to maintain their diets, run akharas and to one day feed their families. The dying sport has fallen below the line of self-sustainability.

A Pehlwan’s day begins with the prayer to god Hanuman followed by a strict and extensive exercise regimen. Following the Guru’s orders, Pehlwans carry out prolonged exercises using maces, ropes, weights and with the help of fellow trainers. After which the Pehlwan’s do practice rounds with each other. These young and old Pehlwans work on their muscles, strength, agility, mobility and moves. Those whose body has given up after decades of wrestling continue to coach and hold respectable place in the Akhara. They become senior members, Gurus. The Guru guides the wrestlers in the pit, which in itself is a result of sacred rituals for Pehlwans. These Pehlwans carry out hundreds of push-ups, sit-ups and strength exercises daily. Young boys with skeletal appearance come here for training and work hard to gain the physique of a Pehlwan. The heroes of Kushti like the undefeated world champion ‘The Great Gama’ and Dara Singh inspire them. The sport is their life; they carry it out with discipline, love, passion and consistency.

The mud-wrestlers do not wrestle on any ground or mud, the mud they use has turmeric, neem, oils and a certain amount of water. This mud is brought from the banks of the Ganges before the addition of these essential materials. The Pehlwans only step on this mud for Kushti, the rest stand outside the pit and watch. It is a passionate sport, which is dying only due to neglect. The modern world allows only those things to be successful that are promoted widely. Sadly, without a huge promotional budget, any sport would go out of the sight of the public and consequently out of business. With the receding attention spans, people easily forget. The only things in business are those that the public is constantly bombarded with, regardless of the quality. Taking the stream of thought forward, if we think about the potential of this sport, we have clear evidence in the form of Bollywood that shows that people still love the sport and find it interesting. The blockbuster film by Amir Khan called ‘Dangal’ (wrestling) or Salman Khan’s ‘Sultan’ have ruled cinemas across India and the world. These movies prove that the thrill of the sport, the passion for Kushti could be revived if only given the right platforms. A similar sport of Kabaddi has found hope with the modernisation of the sport and international coverage. Perhaps, such promotion and reform would benefit Kushti as well.

A skilful photographer and reporter Ayash Basu reported a visual story about Kushti Akharas on his website in 2016. His report on the Kolkata’s pehelwans included the grievances of the young pehelwans. The pehelwan complained that it becomes hard to even maintain their diet; 500 almonds per day, litres of milk, multiple kinds of vegetables and other dietary essentials that each pehelwan requires per day to maintain their muscular bodies and sustain pehelwani. Apart from this, it becomes hard to imagine how the Akharas of these days could be running. The pehelwans often ask the government for assistance but are seldom answered.

The blood and sweat of Pehelwan and the charm of Kushti should be preserved before it is too late. An evolution in the sport could bring better results than leaving it to its old ways. Modernising the sport, commercialising the business even on a national level could save Kushti. There is no doubt that once it takes flight, it has the potential to spread across borders. Millions of fans of boxing, wrestling and mixed martial arts would definitely love to learn about Kushti and open their world to a historical sport. This is the only future that Kushti deserves, whether the world can provide it that future or not is a separate debate.

Reference:

Basu, Ayash. “Kushti Akharas in Kolkata.” Ayash Basu, 2016. http://www.ayashbasuphoto.com/kushti-akharas.

Maptia. “The Ancient Art of Kushti.” Maptia, 2017. https://maptia.com/suvra/stories/the-ancient-art-of-kushti.

Wild Films India. “Akhara Is Venue for Indian Kushti or Mud Wrestling.” www.youtube.com, November 29, 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xxNd93hlmPA.

Fentanyl, one of the deadliest drugs has been finding its way into the United States at an alarmingly increasing rate from the Texas southern border. The Trump era’s strict policies regarding illegal immigration across the southern border were made flexible with the arrival of the Biden-Harris government. Although, the policy to expel the apprehended immigrants to stop the spread of COVID-19 is still in place, yet the government has seen an influx of immigrants from the South. The problem exacerbates when these flexible policies lead to smuggling and drug trafficking. The Southern border has been slowly becoming the gateway for drug traffickers who bring to the US lethal drugs like Fentanyl. Although, the Texas government has taken strict measures to counter the smuggling of Fentanyl, such as the Operation Lone Star launched by the Texas Governor Gregg Abbott, a significant action and policy making is still required on a national level.

Fentanyl is a strong synthetic opioid that is considered 50 times stronger than heroin and 100 times stronger than morphine (CDC, 2021). According to the Drug Enforcement Administration, only 2 milligrams of the drug can prove fatal for most people while a single kilogram can kill 500,000 people (Gutierrez & Henkel, 2021). The drug is used for pharmaceutical purposes too such as for pain control in severe illnesses like cancer. However, the drug traffickers smuggle the illegally manufactured drug that is far more dangerous than the pharmaceutical opioids. Fentanyl is usually taken with or mixed with heroin, methamphetamine or other recreational drugs and mostly people are unaware of the involvement of fentanyl in their drugs. Office of the Texas Governor (2022a) disclosed just in April that the Texas government had seized 300 million lethal doses of fentanyl. It must be considered that these large amounts of fentanyl are only those that are apprehended by the government. The problem has been declared a national emergency by the DEA as they seized 1 million fentanyl pills in Los Angeles, reporting a 64% increase in fentanyl smuggling since the last year (DEA, 2022).

The United States failure to counter the increased drug intake and the deaths associated with it demands deep investigation and action. The Texas Governor, Greg Abbott launched Operation Lone Star to fight illegal immigrations and drug trafficking earlier this year. The operation consists of a collaborative work of the Texas Public Safety department and the State Guard (TIDC, 2021). The operation has been safeguarding the border ever since and has apprehended huge amounts of fentanyl. Fentanyl is mostly smuggled in the form of pills across the border, the massive influx of immigrants through the Texas border is being used by Mexican drug cartels to send fentanyl to the US (Vincent, 2022). The National Guard and border agents intercept huge loads of drugs on daily basis from the border. There are shocking cases of fentanyl trafficking coming in from the Ysleta border (Gimbel, 2022). People carry drugs in their bodies and cars, a 34-year-old woman in June was arrested for carrying fentanyl in her rectal cavity. She was arrested after she admitted to having drugs on her body while the police found another bag in her car (Gimbel, 2022). It also raises concerns over a possible humanitarian crisis, woman’s admitting and surrendering to the border agents also hints at a forced drug trafficking. The border police use canines to detect fentanyl and even young US citizens are found involved in the trafficking. It seems that the problem has entered a next phase where a national action is required to stop the spread of fentanyl.

The Texas locals and authorities are facing a crisis while the federal government is not lending enough support to bring the situation effectively under control (Vincent, 2022). The Governor of Texas’ Office (2022b) is employing his executive powers to control the crisis as Governor Abbott mobilizes the department of public safety and the National Guard to control the immigrants. The Governor stated that, "The cartels have become emboldened and enriched by President Biden's open border policies, smuggling in record numbers of people, weapons, and deadly drugs like fentanyl" (Office of the Texas Governor, 2022b). According to the Texas government, they are invoking their constitutional right in the executive order signed by the Governor on July 7, 2022. The Executive Order states that,

“President Biden’s failure to faithfully execute the immigration laws enacted by Congress confirms that he has abandoned the covenant, in Article IV, § 4 of the U.S. Constitution, that “[t]he United States . . . shall protect each [State in this Union] against Invasion,” and thus has forced the State of Texas to build a border wall, deploy state military forces, and enter into agreements as described in Article I, § 10 of the U.S. Constitution to secure the State of Texas and repel the illegal immigration that funds the cartels.” (Executive Order No. GA-41, 2022, p. 2)

The actions of the President Biden have been termed ‘reckless’ in the executive order, expressing the disappointment of state government over the federal policies. No law in the state allows for the brazen drug trafficking that goes on at the Southern border. Governor Abbott is not the only one criticizing the federal government’s immigration policies. The criticism against federal inaction has started to pour in from all parts of the (Cuccinelli & Howell, 2021).

On the other hand, the critics also blame the Texas government for being too busy stopping immigrants while neglecting the fentanyl trafficking. However, it is also true that the border agents in the Texas borders are overwhelmed by hundreds of thousands of immigrants coming monthly, making up 70% of the total immigration from the South (Vincent, 2022). Whereas 90% of the seized fentanyl in the last year has been recovered from California and Arizona’s legal entry sites from where 30% of immigrants from south find their way to America (Vincent, 2022). Thus, it shows that the Texas border requires more assistance and better policies to control the fentanyl outpour. The Texas Governor’s strict response to immigration to protect the people does not seem an exaggeration when the fentanyl crisis is recognized and analyzed.

The Fentanyl crisis has reached nearly all the states in the USA. It is important to recognize it as a national emergency because of the scale and danger associated with fentanyl. People dosing on other drugs may also come across laced versions of their drugs and take them without knowing. In 2019, a college student in Arizona, took an oxycodone pill that turned out to be laced with lethal amount of fentanyl (Gutierrez & Henkel, 2021). This is shocking because it seems that the fentanyl laced drugs have penetrated the market, which leaves everyone at a potential risk. The deaths due to overdose hit a record high of 100,000 in the previous year, the President Biden termed it ‘an epidemic of loss’ (Vazquez & Klein, 2021). The DEA has claimed that fentanyl is causing unprecedented deaths in America. The amount of fentanyl apprehended so far has been enough for a lethal dose to reach every family in the country. If the crisis is not controlled now, it may lead to serious repercussions for the whole country.

Over the years, USA has taken multiple measures to fight the opioid crisis, which also includes a $3 billon in aid to Mexico to take anti-narcotics measures (Felter, 2021). In addition, the government has also taken steps to stop local supply. However, the current crisis suggests that these measures have not proven effective. The country needs a multifaceted policy to control the fentanyl spread. The first step should be an increased border control and checking policy to ensure that maximum amounts do not find their way into the country. Secondly, the federal government should recognize the crisis and urge all states to revise their local policies regarding drug control. Furthermore, the drug overdoses have multiplied during the pandemic, the data also shows that young people of color are disproportionately affected by the crisis (Vera, 2022). People without jobs and contracting incomes during the recent global depression are vulnerable and at the base of the demand for drugs like fentanyl. Therefore, the third and the important solution to the issue is to control the demand for the drugs. There is no effective way to remove drugs from the country as long as there is a demand for it.

Different countries have dealt with the issue in the last few decades, for example, Netherlands curbed its opioid crisis by allowing the sale of regulated cannabis. Canada has built supervised consumption sites and partnered with countries that are source of most of the fentanyl supply. On the other hand, Portugal, which had become the ‘heroin capital of Europe’ treated its problem by moving toward treatment, rather than incarceration. The United States also needs to take immediate action and remove the fentanyl from penetrating the streets of America. It is a deadly drug with the potential to cause unprecedented loss for the people. Therefore, its trafficking from the Southern border should be monitored more closely and assistance should be provided to all border states to counter the growing menace.

References

• CDC. (2021, September 20). Fentanyl Facts. Www.cdc.gov. https://www.cdc.gov/stopoverdose/fentanyl/index.html

• Cuccinelli, K., & Howell, M. (2021, March 22). Yes, It’s a Joe Biden-Created “Crisis” at the Southern Border. The Heritage Foundation. https://www.heritage.org/homeland-security/commentary/yes-its-joe-biden-created-crisis-the-southern-border

• DEA. (2022, July 14). DEA Los Angeles Field Division Makes Historic Seizure of Approximately 1 Million Fentanyl Pills. Www.dea.gov. https://www.dea.gov/press-releases/2022/07/14/dea-los-angeles-field-division-makes-historic-seizure-approximately-1

• Felter, C. (2021, September 8). The U.S. Opioid Epidemic. Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/us-opioid-epidemic

• Gimbel, A. (2022, June 13). Border agents arrest woman smuggling fentanyl in rectal cavity at Texas-Mexico border. Www.cbsnews.com. https://www.cbsnews.com/dfw/news/border-agents-arrest-woman-smuggling-fentanyl-in-rectal-cavity-at-texas-mexico-border/

• Gutierrez, G., & Henkel, A. (2021, June 29). Fentanyl seizures at U.S. southern border rise dramatically. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/immigration/fentanyl-seizures-u-s-southern-border-rise-dramatically-n1272676

• Office of the Texas Governor. (2022a, April 22). Operation Lone Star Seizes Over 300 Million Lethal Doses Of Fentanyl, Continues To Secure The Border. Gov.texas.gov. https://gov.texas.gov/news/post/operation-lone-star-seizes-over-300-million-lethal-doses-of-fentanyl-continues-to-secure-the-border

• Office of the Texas Governor. (2022b, July 7). Governor Abbott Authorizes Texas National Guard, Texas Department Of Public Safety To Return Illegal Immigrants To Border. Gov.texas.gov. https://gov.texas.gov/news/post/governor-abbott-authorizes-texas-national-guard-texas-department-of-public-safety-to-return-illegal-immigrants-to-border

• Texas Emergency Orders, (Supreme Court of Texas December 21, 21 C.E.). http://www.tidc.texas.gov/media/kvnkyhlo/emergency-orders-the-border-security-state-of-disaster-nos-1-3.pdf

• TIDC. (2021). Operation Lone Star. Texas Indigent Defense Commission. http://www.tidc.texas.gov/operation-lone-star/

• Vazquez, M., & Klein, B. (2021, November 17). Biden on new record high for US overdose deaths: “We cannot overlook this epidemic of loss.” CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2021/11/17/politics/biden-overdose-deaths-record/index.html

• Vera, A. (2022, June 12). CBP officers seize more than $330K in fentanyl at Hidalgo International Bridge in Texas. CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2022/06/12/us/cbp-fentanyl-seizure-hidalgo-international-bridge/index.html

• Vincent, I. (2022, June 10). Mexican cartels exploiting border chaos to smuggle fentanyl into US. New York Post. https://nypost.com/2022/06/10/cartels-exploiting-border-chaos-to-smuggle-fentanyl-into-us/

The grim story of slavery is far from being over. The shrewd villain has changed forms, shapes and names in such ways that today the most common form of slavery is one of the least known. Debt slavery in private sectors, backed by capitalism is still common in many parts of the world. Especially in Southeast Asian countries of India, Pakistan and Nepal. Industries that require manual labor continue to prey upon the marginalized groups of society that are vulnerable due to their social status or economic circumstances. The brick kiln industry is huge in India being the second largest in the world. Whereas in Pakistan the brick kiln industry is a contributor of 1.5% of the total GDP. However, this enormous industry is also least regulated and has become the home of the modern day debt slavery.

The world boasts laws that claim the abolishment of slavery in all forms and celebrates the emancipation of traditional slaves. However, Faisal, a brick kiln worker in Pakistan who has lost his good years laboring at a brick kiln laments to a researcher that “I was young and I was fast, yet I couldn’t run anyway”. There are many such stories throughout Southeast Asia, where bondage due to debt is common. Ali, another brick kiln worker from Pakistan took loan to get married but he did not know that he would be giving slavery as a gift to his wife upon their first meeting. His circumstances took his freedom away from him and left him with but a desire for it. It begins with social conditions and such desperate situations that push the most vulnerable to demand a loan from the owners or contractors of the brick kilns. These people are illiterate and know nothing about the terms and conditions of their loans. High interest rates on small loans make it impossible for these people to pay their debt back.

Moreover, internal migration to improve conditions take the weak and innocent groups into the mouth of these exploitative sharks, who offer them a job and a loan as an advance. The poor people then spend their entire lives paying off their debt and if the man dies, the children inherit the debt. Even during the life of the man, the entire family including women and children work at the kiln to pay off the debt and earn some extra for their bread and butter. The kiln traps these people for their lives and no law enforcement or justice system comes to the rescue. Illiteracy makes these innocent people blind to the terms and conditions of loans, these people voluntarily take loans and end up enslaved. Social inequality, caste systems, poverty and injustice facilitate the kiln owners in keeping people bonded. For instance, Dalits, the untouchables of India, are the most vulnerable and most-often victims of debt-slavery. Myanmar, Pakistan, Nepal, China and nearly all countries have debt-slavery in one industry or other.

According to a UN Report, 21 million people around the world are victims of forced labor. The United Nations Special Rapporteur on Contemporary forms of Slavery also warned that debt-slavery is not universally understood. Perhaps, this leads to a lack of attention and concern for the victims by not only the public but also government. The lack of implementation of laws that protect the rights of these people is a sad truth that follows. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) estimates that around 8 million people worldwide are victims of bonded labor even today. These people are the most marginalized, socially and economically paralyzed to do any better. Puspal, another brick kiln worker from India, told his story to Antislavery Organisation, expressing how they work even in illness because they are constantly disturbed by the thought that their debt could be increasing. Those who dare to escape this bondage are subject to violence by the owners and contractors of the kiln. Should they escape the chains of one brick kiln, they inevitably fall in another trap somewhere else. The need for money is fundamental and this need pushes the people into debt slavery.

The traditional definitions of slavery do not apply on these people because they have no owner and their voluntary contract pushes them out of the definition of forced labor by the International Labour Organisation. However, in wider definitions of slavery debt-bondage could be addressed especially when it overlaps with human trafficking, violence, abuse and child labor etc. Nevertheless, governments must pay due attention to recognize the debt-slavery institution and abolish it. Government programs of interest-free loans to the poor and needy could also play a huge role in controlling debt-slavery. The definitions of slavery may not recognize the plight of debt slaves, but the desire for freedom in the eyes of the victims does elucidate its absence.

References:

Antislavery Organization. “What Is Bonded Labour? - Anti-Slavery International.” Anti-Slavery International, 2018. https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/bonded-labour/.

De Lauri, Antonio. “The Absence of Freedom.” Journal of Global Slavery 2, no. 1–2 (2017): 122–38. https://doi.org/10.1163/2405836x-00201004.

ILO. “Global Report on Forced Labour in Asia: Debt Bondage, Trafficking and State-Imposed Forced Labour.” Oit.org. International Labour Organisation, May 18, 2005. http://oit.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_075504/lang--en/index.htm.

OHCHR. “OHCHR | Debt Bondage Remains the Most Prevalent Form of Forced Labour Worldwide – New UN Report.” ohchr.org, 2016. https://ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=20504&LangID=E

Srivastava, Roli. “End Bondage, Demand Millions of Indian Brick Kiln Workers as Polls Loom.” Reuters, March 29, 2019. https://www.reuters.com/article/india-labour-bondage/end-bondage-demand-millions-of-indian-brick-kiln-workers-as-polls-loom-idINKCN1RA0NK.

Zeldin, Wendy. “United Nations: Report on Debt Bondage | Global Legal Monitor.” www.loc.gov, September 26, 2016. https://www.loc.gov/law/foreign-news/article/united-nations-report-on-debt-bondage/.

The position of a leader in any organization, no matter how big or small, is one with enormous responsibility. Any success of the organization is attributed to him and any failures are considered as his failures. He has a task that extends from past to present and then a legacy to leave that will go into the future. Such a leader who is aware of this enormity of the task and is equipped in his abilities enough to lead successfully is a strategic leader. A strategic leader is one who has a clear vision, task, objective and policy to lead organization towards performance (Kim and Mauborgne, 2002). A strategic leader looks at the cosmos in which his organization dwells and the micros which his system goes through. Leaders more than often find themselves in a place where they have to revive their organization, take it out of its losses and be a harbinger for the glory days. Especially, in organizations such as the military, state, education etc. where the lives of people are directly at stake people look towards their leader with hope to take them out of a crisis. In the leadership of X University MBA community, similar traits, goals and strategies like that of a transformational and strategic leader would promise a growing stature (Allen et al., 2015).

A leader influences those around him and that makes the personality and strengths of leadership the core of any organization. The leadership strengths such as courage, wisdom, temperance, humanity and transcendence are studied to be high strengths and virtues to embellish a leader. These broad leadership strengths include the traits of creativity, curiosity, zest, honesty, fairness, gratitude, etc. (Arenas et al., 2017). These personality traits of leadership become its strengths. In the MBA community, leadership with these strengths would make it possible to achieve its goals. A community requires these humane aspects of leadership just as much as the skills and tactics of strategic leadership. Strong communication skills, teamwork, emotional intelligence, training the juniors and engaging the community are leadership strengths required to make the MBA community prestigious. A community grows through networking, communication and leaves an impression on the outside world.

The goals of leadership in the MBA community have to be individual as well as organizational. Not only should the leader focus on each member’s benefit but also the collective success of the MBA department. A transformational leader is not only inspiring but also empowering for the community (Allen et al., 2015). Thus, the leadership goals must also include training students for future leadership roles, giving them opportunities to learn communication and soft skills required to be an effective member of the community. Leadership goals for a University community would also include improving the environment in which the community dwells; providing optimal conditions to study, learn, and grow together. To guarantee a prestigious future and attract talents across borders and across disciplines, efficient leadership would make it a goal to build an inclusive and sustainable community (Dyer & Dyer, 2017).

A leader is held accountable for everything, but a leader, as a human, cannot be expected to carry out everything on his own. He is held accountable because he represents his organization. Being a leader, he holds the power using which he can allocate authority and responsibility to his subordinates. Effective delegation is necessary to keep the system running. It is important to not only assign the task but give the subordinates enough power to carry out those tasks. Delegation of authority can be defined as subdivision and sub-allocation of powers to the subordinates to achieve effective results. The delegation of authority means giving the power to use the resources in order to get the jobs done. It is the flow of power from the top to the bottom. It is important to give leadership roles to students for teaching them management and efficiency (Hilliard, 2010). It would make a terrible system if the leader had to intervene in every little problem. Thus making effective leadership also democratic. This means that engaging and empowering the student leaders and delegating authority would make the MBA community members more involved and trained than others.

The empowerment and engagement of community members in the events and management of MBA department’s affairs would ensure their training. At this stage, the leadership responsibilities include training, guiding and motivating the student leaders and community members. This also includes the skill to solve prevalent issues. In a Harvard Business Review study about the skills that influence a leader’s success, problem solving ranked third out of 16 (Zenger and Folkman 2017). It is a crucial skill or competency required to be a great leader. The leader must study his team and communicate properly to extract what hardships or issues are keeping the community members demotivated. In this way, the leader would be able to tell whether the issue is with the communication, strategy, trust or if there is a complete lack of proficiency in the subordinates. When these skills are passed on to the students, they will apply them in their practical lives (Ancona & Gregerson, 2018). Their effective problem-solving skills, honed in the engagement opportunities created by the leadership of the MBA community, will become a source of pride for X University and the community.

The sense of belonging and connection of the community members with a project motivates them to self-organize (Giles 2017). This leads to student’s thinking on their own and how to perform best in the task that is assigned to them. This sense of belonging and connection can be established through effective communication. The people are more than happy to work in such a healthy work environment where they are recognized for their role in the project (Sethuraman and Suresh, 2014). Most successful leaders in the world acknowledge the work of their team members. This lifeline keeps a team alive and energized. The projects aimed at engaging the students and other community members would create this sense of belonging leading to a more passionate community. Engagement projects could be of any type, from workshops, business incubation, charity, learning opportunities, on-campus research opportunities etc. (Hilliard, 2010). Furthermore, if the leadership with all the necessary strengths and the right goals in mind would push the community to employ sustainable means of development. From the very environment, they live into the little actions and choices made in the projects and studies. Giving a goal of a sustainable MBA campus would also motivate the members to be more innovative with the resources and authority that they are given by the virtue and trust of their leadership.

In conclusion, it can be stated that the subjects under discussion are all intertwined and do not operate in isolation. For the goals of success, sustainability, training and prestige building of the MBA community in university, leadership strengths play a fundamental role. These principle strengths of leadership are then only functional if the community is actively engaged, motivated and supervised by the leadership. This effective engagement and training of the MBA community would promise well-equipped, emotionally intelligent, skillful and aware community members. As the members become representatives of the MBA community, they become the perfect ambassadors promoting, advertising and protecting the growing stature of the community.

References:

• Arenas, F. J., Connelly, D., & Williams, M. D. (2017). Virtues and Character Strengths. JSTOR. http://www.jstor.com/stable/resrep13849.18

• Ancona, D., & Gregerson, H. (2018, April 16). The Power of Leaders Who Focus on Solving Problems. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2018/04/the-power-of-leaders-who-focus-on-solving-problems

• Allen, N., Grigsby, B., & Peters, M. (2015). Does leadership matter? Examining the Relationship Among Transformational Leadership, School Climate, and Student Achievement. NCPEA International Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation, 10(2). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1083099.pdf

• Dyer, G., & Dyer, M. (2017). Strategic leadership for sustainability by higher education: the American College & University Presidents’ Climate Commitment. Journal of Cleaner Production, 140, 111–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.08.077

• Giles, S. (2017, October 25). The Most Important Leadership Competencies, According to Leaders Around the World. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2016/03/the-most-important-leadership-competencies-according-to-leaders-around-the-world

• Hilliard, A. T. (2010). Student Leadership At The University. Journal of College Teaching & Learning (TLC), 7(2). https://doi.org/10.19030/tlc.v7i2.93

• ‌Kim, W. C., & Mauborgne, R. (2002, June 1). Charting Your Company’s Future. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2002/06/charting-your-companys-future

• Sethuraman, K., & Suresh, J. (2014). Effective Leadership Styles. International Business Research, 7(9). https://doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v7n9p165

• Zenger, J., & Folkman, J. (2017, December 6). The Skills Leaders Need at Every Level. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2014/07/the-skills-leaders-need-at-every-level

'I am 150 feet down an illegal mineshaft in Ghana. The air is thick with dust and heat. The lack of oxygen makes it hard to breathe. I feel the brush of sweaty bodies passing by me in the darkness but I can’t see much. I hear voices of miners talking, but mostly the shaft is a cacophony of men coughing and stone being broken with primitive tools.

Like the others, I wear a cheap, flickering flashlight strapped to my head with a tattered elastic band. I can barely make out the slick tree branches holding up the sides of the three-foot-square hole, dropping hundreds of feet into the earth. When my hand slips, I suddenly remember the man I met days before who lost his grip and fell countless feet down the shaft.' These memories remain vivid in their image and fresh in the traumatising wounds they gave.

As I sit writing here today these men are still deep in that hole, risking their lives — and often dying. I got to climb out of that shaft and go home. They may never be able to, because they have no choice. They are enslaved.

During the California gold rush in 1848, frenzied prospectors poured into the state in the hopes of striking it rich. Similarly, boys and men spend all their money coming from the northern Ghana hoping to strike it rich in legal mines. But legal operations require certifications. When they can’t get a job, they take high-interest loans or join groups of slaves known as gangs in mines abandoned by big companies that were legitimate operations. The men and boys must sell the gold back to the moneylenders. They are trapped by fictitious debt and are often hunted by local police and private security for trespassing.

Some keep the false faith that if they persist working, they will become rich or be able to simply break free of the bondage. But the truth is, they will likely spend the rest of their lives here.

The gangs toil in groups mining hard stone from 300 feet beneath the ground. The fragmented rock housing the gold is brought to the surface in bags slung over their shoulders. When the miners come out of the shaft, they are soaking wet. I remember looking into their tired, bloodshot eyes as some had been underground for more than 72 hours and then transported to another site known as a pounding site.

Ghana is one of the top 10 producers of gold in the world. The illegal small scale gold mines are the locations of many tragedies and deaths. Since the illegal mines have been abandoned by legal companies who have already exploited them, the sites are neglected and damaged by the time they are taken over by illicit mining operations. Dilapidated shafts are inundated with unsafe conditions including a total lack of personal protective equipment, inadequate tools and training. Old stopes that have been poorly supported collapse in ground failures and have caused injuries, and fatalities.

Although under (Small Scale Gold Mining Law, PNDCL 218 of 1989).(3) law, certified minors must be at least 18 years old but there are numerous minors working in the gold industry in perilous conditions. All small scale gold mining operations must have a license in order to engage in work but the process of obtaining one is costly and tedious, so most operate illegally. The misfortune is that the ground failures and poorly supported shafts have led to fatalities and injuries. The International Labor Organization estimates small- scale miners (groups of 10 or less) is 90 times as high as large scale mines in countries that are industrialized. The ILO also estimates that injuries – non fatal- are 6 to 7 times more frequent in unofficial mining operations as opposed to large operations. Although, I found that most injuries were not reported, as they feared disclosing it to the public or authorities so the number could be higher. Small scale miners aren’t keen on reporting accidents and don’t want to draw attention. There have been numerous deaths from collapsing mines: 6 small scale miners in 2016, 17 in 2015 and minimally 45 people in 2010.

When I met Manuru (pseudonym), he had been working in the mines for 14 years. His uncle, intending to make it rich in the mines, brought him to work in the mines when he was quite young, and when his uncle died, Manuru inherited his loan debts from the trafficker as well.

Manuru was one of the unlucky ones who fell down the mineshaft and endured a leg injury so severe, doctors say it should be amputated, he has tuberculosis as well, and yet, he continues to work the mines day in and day out.

Even so, he is determined to get free and attend school with the help of local activists. It is this determination — in the face of unimaginable odds — that fills me with awe.

References:

International Labour Organisation; News Release 1999. Available online: http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/media-centre/press-releases/WCMS_007929/lang--en/index.htm (accessed on 10 January 2015).

The last few decades have reshaped and redefined the meaning and purpose of life for humans. Technology, liberal values and overall freedom due to the supremacy of rule of law have made life easier for everyone. However, the most significant change to occur has been in the lives of the marginalized and persecuted communities who can now live and prosper without fear. The change, however slow, has been significant enough that the LGBTQ community, perhaps the most widely condemned in the past, can now live without hiding or suppressing their sexual orientations. Nevertheless, the LGBTQ community or people who do not go by the strict gender binary system are still victims of oppression and discrimination across the globe (Bullard, 2020). While there are places with a complete ban on the LGBTQ community and activities and people undergo legal persecution, the western world is also leaps and bounds away from being a welfare state to the LGBTQ community. The oppressing discrimination against the LGBTQ community in its depth and width encompasses nearly all aspects of life. These discriminatory attitudes that prevail in all developed societies can be minimized through proper channels of law, social work and measures taken for inclusion (Ray, 2016).

LGBTQ folks are more likely to face discrimination in all phases of life. The prejudice and at times even contempt with which the LGBTQ community is dealt makes their lives harder. From the very primary school education where neither the environment nor the teachers or curriculum is supportive of the LGBTQ community. Children are taught only from a heteronormative aspect that acts as the beginning of exclusion. Similarly, teenagers and higher schools show a similar discriminatory attitude which may even lead to hate crimes, violence and bullying (Swanson & Gettinger, 2016). Education is not the only department where the LGBTQ community becomes a victim of discriminatory practices. Healthcare and treatment of LGBTQ members have been historically prejudiced. Due to the gender-binary and heteronormative healthcare system (Colpitts & Gahagan, 2016), LGBTQ people face stigma and exclusion. This goes beyond the premises of hospitals and the LGBTQ elderly with the need for home-care are also victims of this lack of knowledge and awareness at best and discrimination at worst (Daley & MacDonnell, 2014). Furthermore, this deep-rooted stigma and homophobic attitude has been researched to begin from the very education. Medical students, in a research, reported that their learning environment often condones ‘jokes’ and other discriminatory attitudes towards LGBTQ fellows or patients (Nama et al., 2017).

The unfairness and prejudice towards LGBTQ make the streets unsafe and the homes even more so. This has come to light after research during the Covid-19 Pandemic when the LGBTQ were studied to be more vulnerable to bad health, worsening mental health and economic loss (Goldberg, 2020; Konnoth, 2020). The homes can be violent for LGBTQ members who are not public or independent yet. LGBTQ workplaces have faced bigger losses and this will inevitably lead to a mental health crisis (Konnoth, 2020). On the other hand, when these youth facing abuse at home leave and face homelessness they become victims of discrimination by police in the streets (McCandless, 2017). The treatment of LGBTQ under the criminal law also needs to be readdressed for its loopholes and misinterpretations (Smith, 2019). Similarly, the workplaces are not a safe place for the LGBTQ, they face psychological stress due to the stigma in the society that penetrates the workplaces as well (Mara et al., 2020). The stories of inequity, oppression and discrimination are endless when it comes to the LGBTQ community. But while there are these services that are available to them, although with discrimination, there are also services and opportunities that are completely kept out of their reach. The LGBTQ community faces criticism and discrimination in the military, education opportunities, healthcare and anywhere where the people hold prejudice against them.

As long as inclusion is not stressed universally and advocates of LGBTQ rights are not given their due attention and reforms, the situation will stay grim. The laws of the world certainly do not address the grievances of LGBTQ, from the home to the biggest LGBTQ population, China; the biggest democracy, India; the secular states like Turkey; to the very champion of liberal values, USA, no state is legally equipped to implement safeguarding measures for the LGBTQ (Wang et al., 2019; Göçmen & Yılmaz, 2016; Lerner & Robles, 2016). The discrimination is the baseline it multiplies with other discriminatory attitudes based on religion, ethnicity, color and biological sex (Alex Wagaman, 2016). The world requires a legal framework and action to lift the LGBTQ community out of this abyss of discrimination. The advocates voice these agendas and invite social workers to join them in their fight for a system of true social justice (Reardon, 2020). Social workers can help emancipate the LGBTQ community through empowerment movements demanding inclusion and nondiscriminatory availability of resources, services and opportunities. This has a huge impact on helping the LGBTQ youth feel empowered through community engagement and critical consciousness (Alex Wagaman, 2016). It also helps fight the internalized feelings of discrimination as a result of only witnessing marginalization.

Advocates and social workers can demand legal acts that protect the identity of LGBTQ and save them unwanted discrimination. More importantly, they have the power to demand legal action on employment nondiscrimination (Lerner & Robles, 2016). There is a direct correlation between employment security and social wellbeing, life quality and mental health that social work professionals need to advocate more. The world we dwell in stands tall due to its Human Rights movements and protection. However, the homophobic attitudes of societies and government bring them into conflict with the human rights values and social justice system. The holders of liberal order also go against the morals and freedoms guaranteed in the liberal theory by being homophobic or contemptuous to the LGBTQ community (Blackwell et al., 2004). The human rights system is built upon the premise that governments are obligated to create the conditions under which human rights laws can be fulfilled, thus providing each individual with freedom from human rights violations either by the government itself or by others (Wetzel, 2001, p. 15). Thus indicating how Social Justice concepts are violated by societies that choose to curb the freedoms of those who choose to live differently. Social workers who stand by and for these concepts can be the force behind a positive change through advocacy.

In conclusion, as the world falls deeper into economic, healthcare, and security crises, the most affected will inevitably be those who live in suboptimal conditions and environments even during times of normalcy. These marginalized communities need social workers and social justice advocates more than ever to play a role in their emancipation. Through community engagement activities, legal actions, implementation of nondiscriminatory laws, the world can provide a safer home to the LGBTQ community. Social workers must criticize the education system that lacks the substance and knowledge required to equip society with tolerance and remove strict gender-binary norms. Reforms in the healthcare system and social platforms including social media platforms should be advocated by social workers to combat gender-based discrimination. Most importantly more LGBTQ voices in the social work can be the real force behind a revolution. It is direly needed for no system that condones injustice can remain functional for long and the evolution of mindsets and legal frameworks must come about.

References:

Alex Wagaman, M. (2016). Promoting Empowerment Among LGBTQ Youth: A Social Justice Youth Development Approach. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 33(5), 395–405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-016-0435-7

Blackwell, C. W., Ricks, J. L., & Dziegielewski, S. F. (2004). Discrimination of Gays and Lesbians. Journal of Health & Social Policy, 19(4), 27–43. https://doi.org/10.1300/j045v19n04_02

Bullard, J. (2020). School Social Workers and Perceived Barriers When Providing Services to LGBTQ Children. Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/9539/

Colpitts, E., & Gahagan, J. (2016). “I feel like I am surviving the health care system”: understanding LGBTQ health in Nova Scotia, Canada. BMC Public Health, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3675-8

Daley, A., & MacDonnell, J. A. (2014). ‘That would have been beneficial’: LGBTQ education for home-care service providers. Health & Social Care in the Community, 23(3), 282–291. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.12141

Göçmen, İ., & Yılmaz, V. (2016). Exploring Perceived Discrimination Among LGBT Individuals in Turkey in Education, Employment, and Health Care: Results of an Online Survey. Journal of Homosexuality, 64(8), 1052–1068. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2016.1236598

Goldberg, S. B. (2020). COVID-19 and LGBT Rights. In COVID-19 and LGBT Rights. Columbia Law School. https://scholarship.law.columbia.edu/books/240/

Konnoth, C. (2020). Supporting LGBT Communities in the COVID-19 Pandemic. SSRN Electronic Journal, 20(47). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3675915

Lerner, Justin and Robles, Gabriel (2016) "The Need for Social Work Advocacy to Create Social Justice for Transgender People: A Call to Action," The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare: Vol. 43 : Iss. 1 , Article 2. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/jssw/vol43/iss1/2

Mara, L.-C., Ginieis, M., & Brunet-Icart, I. (2020). Strategies for Coping with LGBT Discrimination at Work: a Systematic Literature Review. Sexuality Research and Social Policy. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-020-00462-w

McCandless, S. (2017). LGBT Homeless Youth and Policing. Public Integrity, 20(6), 558–570. https://doi.org/10.1080/10999922.2017.1402738

Mecklenburg, C. (2020). Attitudes and Practices of Social Workers Toward the LGBTQ Community. Ed.D. Dissertations. https://digitalcommons.olivet.edu/edd_diss/129/

Nama, N., MacPherson, P., Sampson, M., & McMillan, H. J. (2017). Medical students’ perception of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) discrimination in their learning environment and their self-reported comfort level for caring for LGBT patients: a survey study. Medical Education Online, 22(1), 1368850. https://doi.org/10.1080/10872981.2017.1368850

Ray, D. (2016). How to use anti-LGBTQ laws to explore social justice | Lesson Plan | PBS NewsHour Extra. PBS NewsHour Extra. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/lessons-plans/how-to-use-anti-lgbtq-laws-to-explore-social-justice/

Reardon, C. (2020). LGBTQ Rights at Risk — With Protections Threatened, Advocates Seek Social Work Allies - Social Work Today Magazine. Www.Socialworktoday.com. https://www.socialworktoday.com/archive/MJ18p10.shtml

Smith, M. (2019). Homophobia and Homonationalism: LGBTQ Law Reform in Canada. Social & Legal Studies, 096466391882215. https://doi.org/10.1177/0964663918822150

Swanson, K., & Gettinger, M. (2016). Teachers’ knowledge, attitudes, and supportive behaviors toward LGBT students: Relationship to Gay-Straight Alliances, antibullying policy, and teacher training. Journal of LGBT Youth, 13(4), 326–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361653.2016.1185765

Wang, Y., Hu, Z., Peng, K., Xin, Y., Yang, Y., Drescher, J., & Chen, R. (2019). Discrimination against LGBT populations in China. The Lancet Public Health, 4(9), e440–e441. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2468-2667(19)30153-7

Wetzel, J. W. (2001). Human Rights in the 20th Century. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 13(1–2), 15–31. https://doi.org/10.1300/j041v13n01_03

The Missouri state legislature passed a bill that amended the Sunshine Law and created new acts that addressed the privacy and information of citizens. The revised donor disclosure and privacy policy in Missouri also bars the nonprofit organizations from making their donors’ information public (Weinberg, 2022). Furthermore, the provisions added to the bill allow limited liability companies or LLCs to donate to non-profits. The bill was signed by Governor Mike Parson and shall be effective from August 28 (SS SCS SB 741, 2022). The lawmakers expect the bill to protect the citizen’s information and identity to ensure their safety in supporting things that they believe in. On the other hand, there are concerns about whether this would help the nonprofits or complicate their relationship with the taxation department. Furthermore, many critics of the bill highlight that a nondisclosure of funds coming in the non-profits would create increased polarization in the society. In this article, the nature and contours of the bill are discussed along with its major possible outcomes.

The Missouri Senate Bill 741 consists of creation or modification of the publishing of county financial statements, personal privacy protection act, parent’s access to public records act, charitable organizations and the Sunshine law (SS SCS SB 741, 2022). The Personal Privacy Protection Act included in the bill prevents nonprofits from sharing information or data of its donors in any form (SS HB 2400, 2022). According to the Bill, the organizations exempt from taxation under the Section (501)c of the Internal Revenue Code shall close their supporters list whether financial or nonfinancial.

The wave of such privacy acts has reached nearly all states since when the Supreme Court supported the Charitable organizations’ right to withhold their donor’s list. Before the decision, the charities in California had to fill the internal revenue service’s form 990 and its Schedule B that required a list of major donors, however, the Supreme Court decided that filling out such forms for investigative purposes rarely proves fruitful (Liptak, 2021). It defended the first amendment right of people to form associations without having to disclose their identity and become vulnerable to any damage due to their beliefs. This decision sparked debate across the country for the creation of healthy and safe laws that protected the charities and organizations’ right to associate.

The Supreme Court’s decision and the new Missouri state laws are all welcomed by the nonprofits and the donors who like to have their names protected. It is a rightful demand of any donor to have their names protected because some donors only donate to pursue personal goals and do not wish to flaunt their donations (Stefano, 2021). Furthermore, there are charities that operate for the promotion of civil liberties and social causes such as the American Civil Liberties Union, Council on American-Islamic Relations, Zionist Organization of America and the list goes on. A disclosure of supporters for such causes could endanger their lives and property. On the other hand, there are concerns that if anyone, including the limited liability companies are allowed to fund any nonprofit, it may lead to polarization in the country. By funding any cause against another, anyone can push an agenda and the nondisclosure saves the enablers of such propaganda from facing any repercussions. A nondisclosure also creates difficulties for the revenue department in collecting taxes because the law effectively disables them from requesting or compelling information from the organizations (SS HB 2400, 2022). Furthermore, a nondisclosure would increase the risk of fraud in charities.

The bill passed by the Missouri Senate also redefined key terms in the Sunshine Law. The Sunshine Law served the purpose to create a healthy democracy by keeping government meetings, proceeding and records open to the public (Office of Attorney General, 2019). The bill is meant to keep sensitive government proceedings such as terrorism cases from being public. Secrecy is also essential to modern investigation and to keep the police data safe. The bill also prevents all governmental bodies from making the public mailing and contact lists public. The Section 610.021 of the bill that related to the Sunshine Law was modified to include a definition of ‘transitory records’ that will not be considered public records any longer (SS SCS SB 741, 2022). However, there has been criticism from those who think that the bill takes away the right of people to know the proceedings of the government. Furthermore, it is upon the government body’s discretion to decide which record can be considered transitory. This allows the government to potentially keep any information or record out of the public sight.

It is true that in this era of information and technology, people’s data carries immense value for all public and private organizations. However, there are legitimate concerns of security and safety that arise out of the open data. The new legislations are one step forward in protecting people and nonprofits, but it may add to the risk of fraud and social manipulation. It may take a certain level of trial and error to adjust the privacy laws according to the modern times. There is hope that with time these bills shall be amended and pruned in the best interests of the people.

References

SS SCS SB 741, no. SB 741, Missouri Senate (2022).

SS HB 2400, no. 5038S.04T, House of Representative (2022). https://house.mo.gov/billtracking/bills221/hlrbillspdf/5038S.04T.pdf#page=41

Liptak, A. (2021, July 1). Supreme Court Backs Donor Privacy for California Charities. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/01/us/supreme-court-donor-privacy.html

Office of Attorney General. (2019). Missouri Sunshine Law: Open Meeting and Records Law. Office of Attorney General. https://ago.mo.gov/docs/default-source/publications/missourisunshinelaw.pdf?sfvrsn=4#:~:text=The%20Sunshine%20Law%20declares%20Missouri’s,unless%20otherwise%20provided%20by%20law.

Stefano, J. (2021, November 2). Council Post: To Protect Your Nonprofit’s Growth, Protect Your Donors’ Privacy. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesnonprofitcouncil/2021/11/02/to-protect-your-nonprofits-growth-protect-your-donors-privacy/?sh=485d03ee29fc

Weinberg, T. (2022, July 6). New Missouri law shields nonprofit donor identities, allows LLCs to give to candidates. STLPR. https://news.stlpublicradio.org/government-politics-issues/2022-07-06/new-missouri-law-shields-nonprofit-donor-identities-allows-llcs-to-give-to-candidates

The melting pot of American democracy has rarely played according to the ideals we hold. Inside the melting pot, it has been incredibly harsh on the very natives of the land, immigrants seeking a better life, Black Americans, and all other minorities. The past of all the minorities tells tragic tales of racism and oppression. This past has seeped into the present despite many substantial changes in American society over time. It is painful to imagine the trauma of slavery and systemic racism that has passed down the Black American generations. It is even more frustrating to see that even today racist slurs on the streets pierce the eardrums of Black Americans and continue to traumatize them. On the other hand, Asian Americans have seen the worst exclusion, dehumanization, and brutal otherization by White Americans in the past in the form of Exclusion Acts, incarceration camps, racism, and more. Similarly, other minorities have faced criminalization and systemic racism. The land of their dreams, meant to free them of their worries by opening a new horizon of life and livelihood did not treat any minority with the openness that the American ideals claim.

Amidst this grim scenario of systemic racism against all minorities, one would imagine that the minorities get along and support each other. That racial minority groups stand by each other for their collective emancipation from a hate culture and deep-rooted racism that is facilitated by white supremacy. However, reality tells a different story. While there are many events in the past and present that highlight minorities coming together and cooperating, there is still a lot more silence and frustration among the minorities. The minorities have their own reservations from each other. The silence about an issue concerning another racial minority or a reluctance to support each other openly outweighs the cooperation. The interracial disagreements, miscommunications, and mostly unawareness have always pulled the minorities away from each other. These gaps have been supported by many narratives and factors, which we will cover in this book. The struggles against each other, standing on the opposite sides overshadows the pains that the minorities took together, for each other.

The minority gap has been facilitated and widened by many internal and external factors. For instance, the culture of races also dictates their behavior toward each other. At the same time, social and economic circumstances also influence interracial relationships. For example, to some, it may be a lack of communication, for others a survival instinct. In this book, I try to investigate these gaps with the intention to bridge them. I believe that this thought-provoking, controversial yet revolutionary debate must be more openly held no matter how painful or difficult it gets. There is so much lost in translation, destroyed by fears and opposed by such instincts that are governed by centuries of learned behavior. These fears of the unknown should be removed and much-needed questions should be bravely answered. There is a lot of room for compassion, empathy, and mutual support. There is so much untapped potential, hidden in the unity among minorities that can be the force to bring the necessary change in society. It is essential in making America a true homeland to all, without making its colored citizens feel any less American.

Where do we belong?

Tracing back the pages of history, we see that Black Americans have been here just as long as the White Americans. There is no difference in the time and space of their presence in the land of the USA except that of status. One were masters and the other enslaved. Centuries of Black existence in America is enough proof of their being American. However, they have still had to fight at each step, proving with their bodies, minds, hearts, and even with their lives that they are loyal, equal, and honorable citizens of America. The history shows the worse than step-motherly attitude shown to Black Americans that continue to date. But if there is any place, where they belong, it is America. They are American. Just as American are the Asian Americans who have suffered greatly at the hands of white supremacists, American imperialists, and racist ideologies held by White Americans.

For decades, The Chinese Exclusion Act barred the Chinese people from immigrating to the USA.[1] The Chinese workers in the West Coast had made a lot of progress in the Gold Rush, which gave a reason to the endemic anti-Chinese racism to attack Chinese people. This racism is clear in the very terms they used to describe the entire Asian race; The Yellow Peril. The solution they saw was in excluding the Chinese and banning their entry into the state. This is when the White Supremacists passed the Chinese Exclusion Act in the late 19^th century. They moved the workers from West to San Francisco to do the ugliest, most menial jobs that were available. The reasons behind the Chinese Exclusion Act are evidently racist whether anyone debated it as a manipulative scheme of the top tier White Americans or the anti-Chinese feeling of a common person. One of the senators to propose the bill maintained that the Chinese were “machine-like…of obtuse nerve, but little affected by heat or cold, wiry, sinewy, with muscles of iron.”¹ This portrayal of Chinese is sinister and dehumanizing showing a falsely threatened White view of another race.

Another crime committed against Asian Americans is the overgeneralization of all Asians as one race. When the reality is that Asians, only within East Asia can have starkly different cultures, histories, languages, and origins. The complex nature of this issue is still alive and affects the lives of Asian Americans. In the post-World War II world, as the Americans attempted to build a closer relationship with the Japanese and allowed their skilled workers’ immigration, the country gave some breathing space to at least some Asians. The situation was not so favorable for all Asians; the skilled workers could work hard and succeed in life. Whereas, the Asians who migrated as refugees or sought livelihood without any prior skill or education had the worst experience in the states. These gaps have widened with time. While the skilled, business owning, and highly successful Asians, mostly of Japanese origin, form the richest minority group in the country. The unskilled, refuge-seeking Asians of Vietnamese, Bhutanese origin have a majority living under the poverty line. They are the most vulnerable, poverty-stricken group, among the minorities.[2]

In a similar vein, Hispanics have been subjected to racism and blatant accusations on the entire race by a president, Donald J. Trump. The slowing down of immigration, building a wall on the Mexican border, hate-speech, name-calling have all been ways in which the previous government attacked an already struggling minority group. When the truth is that 79% of Hispanics or Latinos are actual citizens of the USA.[3] About 60 million Hispanics are living in the United States of America and they have faced a recent surge of hate crimes against them.[4] Classifying Latinos as drug dealers, racists and associating a criminal identity with them has made them more vulnerable to maltreatment. Similarly, there are other minorities based on color, culture, or religion that have been victims of racism in the very schools their children visit, to the very streets they walk home.

A Parallel Drift:

The minorities with diverse origins and cultures have all faced discrimination and racism in their lives. However, a majority of these groups have not stood up for each other in the past. Yes, there are exceptions but they are countable in the face of uncountable discriminations. It seems that these groups are drifting parallel to each other in a sea of systemic racism and prejudices. Very rarely, have these groups stopped to meet each other in the middle and become a single voice. In fact, there has even been animosity between the minority groups. This animosity derives from multiple factors. The biggest, in my opinion, is the lack of communication. There may not be feelings of hostility, but there are feelings of being different, giving rise to reservations. The drastically different cultures, languages combined with a starkly different treatment of each minority by the white majority pulls them apart.

There have been tensions between Asian Americans and Black Americans in the past. It does not have to be a huge case of Asian American and Black conflict, like the killing of Latasha Harlins by a Korean shopkeeper. Or the L.A. Riots that followed the incident. The people have stood distant from each other in the neighborhoods, workplaces, and other areas of social interactions. Black people have an intrinsic feeling of demanding respect and a friendly attitude from Asian Americans because they feel that these people have entered their neighborhoods, created competition for them, plagued them with the Model Minority theory so the least they can do is stand up against anti-black racism.[5] This, of course, is not the experience and feeling of all Black people but the mere fact that these issues have entered debate is tantamount to their existence in some form.

On the other hand, racism against Asian Americans has not completely disappeared. On the contrary, Asian people are subject to increased racism and hate crimes after the Corona Virus Pandemic and the government’s position; calling it a Chinese Virus. A third of Asian American population felt threatened after the COVID-19 pandemic.[6] And these concerns were valid as the hate crimes increased against them. The shooting of Korean massage business runners, assaults on the elderly Asians, an atmosphere of hate, and baseless blaming of Asian Americans for the Pandemic have incurred serious losses on the Asian American population.

The anti-Black hate also has deep roots in cultural perceptions of other races; cases in which stereotypes also find their way.[7] This leads to the reciprocation of the racist attitude from Black people toward Asian Americans. The stereotypes and myths of ‘Black Criminality’ have played out negatively for the Black people’s perception around the world.[8] Especially, the strict and conservative Asian cultures do not feel like mingling with the black population because of these myths. The same criminal perception created about Hispanics has created their image as drug dealers and thugs in the eyes of all other races. These tropes have been perpetrated by White Supremacists running the country and the media houses. Especially, the impact of limited and non-representative roles of Hollywood characters in creating these perceptions has been detrimental.

Adding fuel to the fire has been the linguistic and cultural barriers that divide many communities leaving only the most liberal, English-speaking minorities supporting each other.² Obscured histories of these races, limited interactions, and a white supremacist-built atmosphere has made it increasingly difficult for the minorities to stick together. Nevertheless, they have oft stood beside each other as well. The silver lining is still alive and growing with time as the more educated and socially mobile newer generations stand up to recognize each other's issues. Massive support for the Black Lives Matter movement from the young Asian Americans has been a breath of fresh air, bridging the gap that would otherwise be filled with racial resentment. This does not come as an arbitrary action; rather the young generation remains fully aware of the views of the previous generation and chooses to grow out of their bubble.[9] They recognize the intergenerational gap and actively participate to bring these issues up with the older generations in efforts to create more awareness. The scholars are investing in breaking down the stereotypes and the myths like ‘Model Minority’ to create friendly interracial relations.

Contemplating Unity:

History has many stories to tell about the interracial cooperation in the USA. We see a dead Malcolm X cradled by an Asian woman. We witnessed the support of Martin Luther King Jr. for the Vietnamese. We have seen young Asian students getting inspired by the Civil Rights Movement. We see the Asian support for a more democratic America, to counter the systemic racism. We are seeing a blooming generation more willing than ever to stand up for each other irrespective of their differences. There is a great social, economic and political potential that the minorities can achieve by just being together. There need to be more representatives of the minority in the legislature and political offices. This can only be done by revisiting the origins of the races in the American melting pot, highlighting the history that was obscured by white supremacy, breaking down all the factors involved in the disunity among minorities, and understanding this issue comprehensively. Above all, looking for solutions to the issues, devising multifaceted ways to bring multiple races closer and highlighting the potential benefits of unity is crucial. This book is an attempt to play a part in fulfilling these objectives. It is high time that we addressed these issues of colossal importance for a safer and more tolerant future.

References:

[1] Wu, Y. (2017). Chinese Exclusion Act | United States [1882]. In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-Exclusion-Act

[2] Demsas, J. (2021, March 16). The history of tensions — and solidarity — between Black and Asian American communities, explained. Vox. https://www.vox.com/22321234/black-asian-american-tensions-solidarity-history

[3] Noe-Bustamante, L. (2019, September 16). Key facts about U.S. Hispanics and their diverse heritage. Pew Research Center; Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/09/16/key-facts-about-u-s-hispanics/

[4] Brooks, B. (2019, November 12). Victims of anti-Latino hate crimes soar in U.S.: FBI report. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hatecrimes-report-idUSKBN1XM2OQ

[5] Red Table Talk. (2021, May 20). Confronting The Divide Between Black and Asian Americans. Www.facebook.com. https://fb.watch/5-Ygxh0tnS/

[6] Pew Research. (2021, April 21). One-third of Asian Americans fear threats, physical attacks and most say violence against them is rising. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/04/21/one-third-of-asian-americans-fear-threats-physical-attacks-and-most-say-violence-against-them-is-rising/

[7] Tejada, C. (2017, February 15). South Koreans Share Their Thoughts On Black People In Eye-Opening Video. HuffPost Canada; HuffPost Canada. https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2017/02/15/koreans-black-people_n_14771318.html

[8] Chow, K. (2017, April 19). “Model Minority” Myth Again Used As A Racial Wedge Between Asians And Blacks. Npr.org. https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2017/04/19/524571669/model-minority-myth-again-used-as-a-racial-wedge-between-asians-and-blacks

[9] Thanawala, S. (2021, May 3). Asian Americans see generational split on confronting racism. ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/asian-americans-generational-split-confronting-racism-77449876

Human mind is an extraordinary organ that decides and controls the behaviours, actions and attitudes of people. However, the organ can also be manipulated by external influences and knowledge gained through the five senses. According to Cambridge dictionary, manipulation is defined as ‘controlling someone or something to your own advantage, often unfairly or dishonestly’ (Cambridge Dictionary, 2019). On the other hand, humans, being social animals, are always under influence of their environment and other people. The problem begins when the human mind is unethically manipulated to support something that is not in its wider interests. Such is the manipulation carried out by politicians in a democracy where the power stays with the/ people. As long as the power remains in the hands of people, the only way to tap this source of power is through manipulation. Humans have even refined the art of manipulation; it continues on ordinary, national and global levels shaping human behaviours around the world on all issues. Under such circumstances, it becomes difficult to judge whether people actually hold the power or not. In political world, one could view democracy from this lens and study the effectiveness of the system of government. The essay studies the different ways democracies are manipulated and whether the manipulation makes them less effective compared to autocracies.

In a democratic system of government, political behaviour and opinions are shaped by multiple elements that form and run the state. The popular definition of democracy is the rule of the people, by the people and for the people. However, people are governed by their desires and according to what they know and behold. Therefore, multiple elements within democracies alter the environment and subvert democracy to push their own agendas. Political parties, civil society, media, bureaucracies, government and even external factors can shift political behaviour and public opinion (Britannica, 2021). This power to influence makes it possible for these elements of democracy to work together effectively for welfare and services of the people. However, there is a tendency in all elements to use this influence to manipulate the people and their decisions.

According to Encyclopaedia of Psychology, manipulation can be done in multiple ways; withholding important information, selective focusing on negatives or positives of an event or person, blackmailing, fearmongering, suspicion, false allegations, gas lighting, peer pressure etc. (Noggle, 2018). In political world, demagogues employ similar tactics of manipulation to subdue or manipulate the masses. In an autocracy, the autocrat uses these tactics directly to keep people under control. Whereas, in a democracy, various institutions, political and civil elements use these manipulative methods to keep control. Political history is filled with examples of mass manipulation for political or electoral gains. This phenomenon is also not limited to a certain state rather the entire world experiences it to different extents. The modern era of technology and heavily connected media has made it even more convenient for political manipulators to function. Such manipulation has become so rampant that academics term it as the ‘The Era of Manipulation’ (Walker, 2019).

Manipulation in a democracy begins right from the campaigning in electoral race. Even false propaganda has the ability to alter the image of a candidate in the minds of the people. Thus, if highly manipulated electoral results bring a new government in power, would that government be legitimate or in line with democratic values becomes a point of concern. This suggests that decisions and actions in this new democratic government would be prone to make further unpopular decisions. However, these actions and their outcomes would be embedded in the minds of the people in a positive light through psychological manipulation. On the other hand, Persson and Savulescu (2014, p.8) state: “as history has shown with frightful clarity, authoritarian regimes can go disastrously wrong in ways that to this day no democracy has done, precisely because of this capacity to implement unpopular policies, which often promote only the interests of the ruling class.” However, in the current world such disastrous manipulation is also observable in democracies, thus, undermining democracy legitimacy.

One of the tactics of political manipulation is a smear campaign. Smear campaigns are manipulative tactics that target someone’s reputation in order to change the said person’s perception in the minds of people. These tactics are used to temper with the electoral results, polling behaviour and ultimately democracy. These smear campaigns that spread disinformation and use it against a political candidate or party are not new to the democratic arena. For example, in Britain, the 1924 Labour government of Ramsay Macdonald lost elections because of the publication of a fake letter from the Soviet head of the Comintem, Grigory Zinoviev. The Conservatives won the elections using it against the liberal party, propagating that Labour are supporting Soviets. This was proven a fake letter as late as 1999 and the inquiry uncovered that even the then Foreign Office knew the letter was fake but were happy to see the Labour government lose (Wayne Le Cheminant and Parrish, 2011, pp.32–39). This is a clear example of how using wrong information or withholding the truth from the people can influence election results.

Smear campaigns are used to obtain desired outcomes from political processes. This becomes easier in a democracy where the society is open and interactions with people, especially through media, can easily manipulate the results of elections or a feedback to a policy. Certainly, the smear campaigns are also employed to divert the attention of people from a much graver issue by damaging a candidate’s reputation and credibility. For example, bringing up past scandals or making false scandals can make people give a second thought to a candidate that they would otherwise support based on their arguments and interests. The example discussed above also shows how bureaucratic institutions (Foreign Office in this case) also get involved in the process of manipulation to promote their bias. Under such circumstances, if the power rests with all people equally becomes a point for major concern. This debate also extends to whether the democracy is pure or an elitist government run by those with power or influence.

Modern examples of smear tactics permeate into the technological and digital world. In the recent USA elections, multiple smear tactics were used against the Biden-Harris party some making fake websites in the name of Joe Biden to upload jokes or disinformation about Joe Biden. Social media campaign against Kamala Harris and blaming her for not being a Black American was also carried out (Lerer, 2019). All these tactics targeted reputation of electoral candidates to change electoral results. These campaigns also take the shape of complete negative campaigning in which the opposing candidate is portrayed in the worst possible light.

Generalizations are other tactics of imposing a certain truth on people and/or claim that it applies to a whole group rather than an individual. Furthermore, generalizations could also be used to interpret the words of an individual in a broader or different context, thus, deliberately causing the individual to lose credibility or original meaning of their intention. For example, claiming that ‘Conservatives consider immigrants as aliens’ would make people think each individual from the conservative party holds these views (Clark and Enumclaw, 2020). However, individual preferences are varied and each party member could have their own thoughts about immigrant. Similarly, generalizations can also be used to spread a positive image of a party. For example, spreading a view that ‘Democrats support gay rights’ would make liberals believe that all individuals under the flag are homophiles. Despite the wrong projections on the behalf of all, generalizations also divide a society leading to polarization within democracy (Clark and Enumclaw, 2020).

Continuing the argument, polarization that results from generalizations. These generalizations represent the partisan interests of the masses. As given in above example, if someone personally supports immigrants and so does the party, however, the party does not support some other pro-democracy measure. The candidate would still view it from the lens of personal emotional attachments and views and not public or democratic analytical one. A study based on Venezuelan democracy, concluded that voters could be willing to trade off democratic principles for their partisan interests (Svolik, 2018). This indicates that partisan politics or tactics to divide people jeopardize the democratic system. Such political actors are willing to sacrifice democratic values for personal gains. Furthermore, preying on people’s emotional attachments and partisans, they can mould the political atmosphere to their benefit. Once again highlighting the discussion of the essay, the legitimacy of such a democracy where generalizations create divides upon which political actors prey becomes doubtful. Such actions are even observable in autocracies but there autocrats replace mobilization of various actors and institutions for manipulation.

One of the most common methods of political manipulation is gaslighting. Gaslighting means sowing the seeds of doubt for a person, thought, event or anything thus making people question their judgment and believe the political actor. The extent to which a group of citizens could be gaslighted can be determined by their involvement in political process and active learning. The lesser the people expand their knowledge or investigate the truth behind all the information that is bombarded at them in their daily lives, the more susceptible they would be to gaslighting. Gaslighting makes people doubt the effectiveness of a procedure, credibility of an individual and even an entire race. Gas lighting makes masses who are reluctant to fact-check easy targets of political actors. Gaslighting is done against races, parties, individuals and even institutions. These embedded doubts about people endure (Davis and Ernst, 2017) and make life harder for people even in the future. In a democracy, such racism has no place.

For example, in lieu of the Corona Virus Pandemic the US Elections of 2020 were for the major part carried out through mail-in ballots. However, Donald Trump gaslighted the public about the credibility of these votes and thus made people become doubtful of the election outcomes (Altis, 2020). The deep-rooted doubt and false claims about victory in elections led to riots and troubles across the USA. As a result of Trump’s gaslighting, his supporters still do not concede to the election results. Furthermore, the people are still divided against each other to such an extent that violent means of protests are employed. This indicated how dangerous gaslighting could be for the social and political fabric of a state. This one episode of gaslighting put the American peace at risk just to propagate Trump’s political motives bypassing the democratic process. Gaslighting is also entering popular use as social media makes it very easy to advance false counterarguments to any debate while being most conveniently accessible to the public.

Manipulation in politics does not only include false narratives, rather sometimes a synthesis of an ideal narrative by taking the good parts from each extreme is also carried out. For example, Clinton administration in the United States is believed to employ the triangulation method to impress a majority (Nesmith and Quirk, 2016). Such politicians take good ideas or agendas from all parties and propose a solution that is above any party’s manifesto. It does not matter where the people stand or what approach is originally suggested to these politicians, they are determined to find a third-way in every case. These politicians take this mean position, attractive to the majority and ensure their popularity among the voters. This is yet another form of manipulation, because it is devoid of any ideology, firm ground or any firm context of benefit or loss of the people. On the contrary, triangulation seems to be a form of opportunistic politics based on partisan interests. Although, triangulation is not commonly used but it is also dangerous because it is difficult to detect. A common citizen would only get swayed by the rhetoric rather than fact check or background check on the statements of the politician. Once again, undermining democratic principles, as this does not fall in the category of wooing the voters ethically and for a higher purpose.

Another manipulative tactic in use by politicians is moving or shifting goal posts. This is a metaphorical term which implies the changing of requirements for a certain purpose according to the situation. Shifting goal posts are even used on international level, when evidences for international dispute are first demanded and when these evidences are given, some higher evidences are demanded. This keeps the issue hovering and the crisis is prolonged. An example, of such manipulation on international level is the India Pakistan Question of Kashmir issue in the United Nations. Similarly, within a democratic state, shifting goal posts are used to appeal the voters. For example, when the conservatives were in opposition in England, a no-deal Brexit was a huge problem. Nevertheless, when the new government came in power, a no-deal Brexit was narrated as a fairly acceptable possibility (Eaton, 2018). These pervasive tactics are used in everyday politics where politicians change their goals or perception of goals in the minds of the people instead of finding a better stance or solution themselves. In simple words, politicians attract voters by showing a higher goal and after getting popular lower down their goals. However, because they are already trusted, people are swayed with the flow.

Shifting goal posts are a serious issue in governance, a manipulative act to control and win mass support. When governments fail to achieve goals, they lower the goals down and claim their efficiency over achieving the new lower goals. These tactics are used in democracies as well as autocracies. In all forms of government, the leaders for political gains use gaslighting and moving goal posts. In an autocratic or authoritarian state, one or few men could keep people in fear, confusion or falsely elated. On the other hand, in a democratic environment multiple actors, civil societies, insitutions, leaders, political parties could all employ these strategies for political purpose. The legitimacy of democracy becomes inevitably questioned under such circumstances. It also undermines moral psychology and civic responsibility (Paulo and Bublitz, 2016).

Manipulation in the modern democracies is largely done through media. Television interviews allow the politicians to access millions and spread their views. These are the tools or platforms from where the politicians project their views onto the people. This is where the truth is either distorted, kept hidden or completely altered for political gains. Use of media for political manipulation is equally normalized in democracies as it is in authoritarian states. Through books, discourses and other means of spreading information, governments of all systems control informational inflow and ultimately political culture and behaviour. In a democracy, politicians are not alone, pressure groups and interest groups also focus on one thing more than the other and promote their own agendas. However, these cannot always be regarded as manipulative until they harm national and public interests.

Social media gives the people a lot more to information to digest, making it practically impossible to fact-check all arguments, claims or statements. Academics even debate that the internet is killing democracy, because these platforms have made it super convenient for the manipulators to act. Bartlett acknowledges this reality stating, “The modern citizen is expected to sift through an insane torrent of competing facts, networks, friend requests, claims, blogs, data, propaganda, misinformation, investigative journalism, charts, different charts, commentary, and reportage” (Bartlett, 2018, p. 53). This information flood arrives right in the palm of the hands of citizens who intake all of the false, correct and distorted data that alters their decision making process. Public involvement in a democracy is a crucial but if these involvements are tarnished by false knowledge or arguments, the situation becomes drastically different. This can bring chaos to any state and manipulate any democracy. While in authoritarian regimes, this is the normal way of public manipulation.

Considering the arguments of this essay, the legitimacy of a democracy and its effectiveness comes to mind. Whether a highly manipulated democracy is still a democracy with the will of people the supreme authority. According to Paulo and Bublitz (2016), “Governmental legitimacy derives from the will of the people. And the will of the people, in turn, emerges from the wills of individual citizens. The ultimate source of governmental legitimacy lies in the political opinions and preferences of the citizens.” The voting action translates these wills of citizens, however, when these decisive attitudes of citizens are acquired because of manipulation, one wonder what would be the outcome of a pure democracy. The legitimacy of the government is not restricted to the input by the citizens. Moreover, the feedback and other factors that make a system inclusive and safe for all (Paulo and Bublitz, 2016). As democracy is supposed to be governed under the rule of law, these factors become equally important while measuring the legitimacy of a democracy.

In a majoritarian democracy, attitudes of doubt, suspicion or contempt toward a minority group also propagated by politicians to acquire popular support. This also leads to racial discrimination, gaslighting a minority group, religious intolerance and a decay of the liberal order that once saved the world. With the withering of the society and divides within a state, the spirit of democracy cannot be accepted to survive.

In conclusion, democracies, especially in the modern era are prone to manipulation. This manipulation if not equal to authoritarian or autocratic manipulation is still considerably dangerous to the public interests. At times, the manipulative actions for political gains can even put the state interests at risk because the politicians prioritize personal gains. Such manipulative actions can lead to disastrous effects causing divide in the social fabric of a country, sub-standard or even harmful policymaking, management and governance crisis etc. These issues influence the lives of citizens directly and hinder the ideal growth of a country. If the current circumstances of widespread manipulation through means of social media and technology worsen, the legitimacy of a democracy may end up at the guillotine, whether to be pardoned or to be sacrificed to become a mob rule, autocracy, a coup or an oligarchy.

References:

Altis, E. (2020). Trump, and the history of political gaslighting. [online] Varsity Online. Available at: https://www.varsity.co.uk/opinion/19909 [Accessed 12 Jan. 2021].

Barattero, A. (2018). The People Vs Tech: How the Internet is Killing Democracy (and How We Save It). The Incarnate Word, 5(2), p.53.

Beerbohm, E. and Davis, R. (2018). Gaslighting Citizens. [online] Available at: https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/beerbohm/files/gaslighting_beerbohm_davis_v21.pdf [Accessed 13 Jan. 2021].

Britannica (2021). Public opinion - Mass media and social media. [online] Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/public-opinion/Mass-media-and-social-media.

Bartlett, J., 2018. The people vs tech: How the internet is killing democracy (and how we save it). Random House.

Cambridge Dictionary (2019). MANIPULATION | meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary. In: Cambridge.org. [online] Available at: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/manipulation.

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Davis, A.M. and Ernst, R. (2017). Racial gaslighting. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 7(4), pp.1–14.

Eaton, P. (2018). “Moving the Goalposts”: the danger of people changing their defences, not their stances. [online] Palatinate. Available at: https://www.palatinate.org.uk/moving-the-goalposts-the-danger-of-people-changing-their-defences-not-their-stances/ [Accessed 14 Jan. 2021].

Lerer, L. (2019). The 2020 Smear Campaign Is Underway (Published 2019). The New York Times. [online] 1 Jul. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/01/us/politics/on-politics-2020-disinformation.html [Accessed 15 Jan. 2021].

Nesmith, B.F. and Quirk, P.J. (2016). Triangulation: Positioning and Leadership in Clinton’s Domestic Policy. 42, pp.46–76.

Noggle, R. (2018). The Ethics of Manipulation (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). [online] Stanford.edu. Available at: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-manipulation/.

Paulo, N. and Bublitz, C. (2016). Pow(d)er to the People? Voter Manipulation, Legitimacy, and the Relevance of Moral Psychology for Democratic Theory. Neuroethics, 12(1), pp.55–71.

Persson, I. and Savulescu, J. (2014). Unfit for the future : the need for moral enhancement. Oxford: Oxford University Press, , Cop, p.8.

Svolik, M. (2018). When Polarization Trumps Civic Virtue: Partisan Conflict and the Subversion of Democracy by Incumbents. [online] papers.ssrn.com. Available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3243470 [Accessed 17 Jan. 2021].

Walker, C. (2019). The Era of Manipulation. Journal of Democracy, [online] 30(2), pp.172–175. Available at: https://journalofdemocracy.org/articles/the-era-of-manipulation/ [Accessed 17 Jan. 2021].

Wayne Le Cheminant and Parrish, J.M. (2011). Manipulating democracy : democratic theory, political psychology, and mass media. New York ; London: Routledge, pp.32–39.

Policymaking forms the core of a government; great policies are the blueprint of an ideal state created by the agents of the government and implemented by the executive. Institutions and governments design policies as the set of guidelines to decide the course of action in particular situations. This policymaking process also involves the will of the people, the voice of pressure groups, interest groups and the influence of technocrats and think tanks. The complex nature of policymaking systems and models in contemporary democracies are a result of centuries of advancing knowledge and research in the field of political science, public management, administration and democracy itself. From laws uttered by the monarchs being the only available policies to the complex systems of policymaking today, the improvement and development is evident in this evolutionary process. However, the march of government systems toward an ideal welfare state continues along with the struggle to translate ideal theories into practice. Policymaking in its ideal models and theories has many critiques and failures in the real world. The essay discusses the real and ideal practices of policymaking in the contemporary democracies. The ideal models and theories of policymaking fail to translate exactly into actions as multiple factors in contemporary democracies influence the policymaking process.

Policymaking has many definitions but perhaps one may use the different characteristics of policymaking to understand it as a concept. Policymaking is a broad and multifaceted work carried out under the influence of one or many actors and then implemented using the resources available in a set or given time-period or condition. The students of policymaking are faced with the challenging task of studying policymaking in all its shapes and forms. It is important to understand the different types in which a policy can exist in order to explore the real and ideal policymaking in the contemporary government systems. Policymaking may be a set of guidelines by its nature but there are multiple types of policies.

Policy can be a particular decision in a certain case, for example, an immediate response guideline to a global crisis (Minogue, 1983). It is similar to how all states made their own policies or guidelines to deal with ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, policies could be a set of guidelines about the state’s behavior regarding another state (foreign policy), state’s response to particular conditions if they arise such as disaster management policies or emergency policies. It is important to know that these policies are not only for extraordinary conditions; policymaking is done on normal basis for mundane tasks that collectively run a country. It is the decision-making carried out by government officials and their machinery. Significantly, understanding the concept of policy making also includes the processes through which a policy is made and implemented.

In light of the significance of policymaking, it becomes equally important to learn about who carries out the policymaking processes. The policymakers in the contemporary democracies is not only the government but one may imagine it as a tree spreading out into many branches and even to smaller twigs. In simple words, with the division of labour in the executive and legislatures, many people perform the policymaking act in many ways. The scope and extent of each policymaker is obviously different. The government makes the policies that are shaped not only by the head of the state and ministers but also by bureaucracies and state machinery. The government is also influenced by the think tanks that provide technocratic advice. Furthermore, these people are not the only ones involved in the task but the policy making process is influenced by many other actors too. These actors include pressure groups, opposing political parties, civil society and the public.

Considering the involvement of all these actors and the policymakers, the real policymaking process conducted in the contemporary democracies does not go by any book. Policymaking as a decision making process about everything a state handles is arbitrary at its core (Minogue, 1983). It then categorizes and specializes when the sets of guidelines are put together, polished and amended according to the socioeconomic circumstances. The policymaking must be impartial considering the best interests of the state and the people, however, in the real world many policymakers fall prey to their own desires. They shape policies that assist their political and economic agendas. There can also be corruption in the process of policymaking and many tactics by opposition to pressurize the government into bad policymaking.

Policies are theories in their written form but when it comes to implementation, there are many aspects to the policies. Policies could also be made to keep the power concentrated in the few hands or the opposition can make a good policy appear bad by promoting undue criticism. These political problems are just one that can make the real policies far different from the ideal ones. Policymaking is a rational process that sets out solutions to the incumbent problems. While there can be many ideal solutions to a problem, there are always limitations that make ideal implementation nearly impossible. Moreover, the government does not always have all the information available to formulate a perfect and most shrewd policy, which hints that the chances of an ideal policy-making process are also low. As B. J. Loasby says, ‘It is dangerous to assume either that what has been decided will be achieved, or what happens is what was intended.’ Therefore, there is always a gap between the theory and practice of policymaking (Minogue, 1983).

The actors of policymaking are the politicians at the top and the lowest level bureaucrats and representatives at the bottom. There is an extensive range between these two extremes. The politicians who have been elected play the main role in policymaking, their vision, manifesto and expertise drives the policymaking process in a certain direction. Some politicians that form the executive may also have their own personal interests that influence the policies and their implementation. Many a time, there are policies that are most suitable to solve an issue but they never are implemented. This is because the purpose of such politicians is to please the public and keep things under control by showing that work is being done. Whereas, in reality those policies never meet action because that was never the intention of the politicians.

Another way of political influence and involvement of politicians is in the legislature. The assemblies of public representatives, the House of Commons and the House of Lords, the policies are often debated in these houses. The opposition criticizes the policymaking process and responds with either solutions or delaying tactics to keep the government from performing. In an ideal democracy, it is the job of the opposition to assist by constructive criticism. However, the reality displays a contrast where the opposition may even play a destructive role. While the purpose of legislature is to make laws, the house being representative of the public can debate and criticize policies too. For example, the debate about the foreign policy, the management of events, the policy for allocation of resources etc.

Interest groups also play a role in policymaking process by highlighting the needs of a group of people. They certainly provide the necessary information to the government to form such policies as needed by the people. The interest groups stay in contact with the government and the media to express their views about certain policies or to even demand lacking policies. The pressure groups compel the government through mobilization of public to perform and make public friendly policies. For example, if the doctors’ community does not like a policy regarding their payments, or a business group does not accept a certain policy for tax collection, they come out on media and inform the government about their feedback. If the government fails to listen, the situation could get worse and cause protests. For example, if the parents do not like the policy of reopening the schools post-pandemic, they will come out and express. Under ideal conditions, the interest groups work for the interests of community while not harming the interests of any other group or state.

The general public needs and attitudes also influence government decision-making. This is why the governments around the world do not react in one manner; they each have different modes and directions of action in the similar situations. Some states have people that support an aggressive foreign policy and push the government to form such a policy whereas there are states with more passive populations that demands their government to make a friendlier foreign policy toward all. For example, not all states allowed refuge to Muslim asylum seekers who were escaping the war against ISIS. The people of states like Canada and Germany accepted people with open hearts and their policies followed. On the other hand, the general perception about refugees in the USA was paranoid to some extent, which pushed the government to successfully formulate policies that not only kept refugees out but also cracked down against Muslims within the country.

One of the most important actors of policymaking is the bureaucracy. Bureaucrats are the enablers of the political leaders who form the government. The need for bureaucracy arises because the executive and the legislature cannot be expected to carry out the tasks related to every single individual in the country (Gruber, 1987). This is why bureaucracy as an administrative organization or institution supply the ministers with the required machinery, information and the expertise required for carrying out a task. In addition, ministers also seek the bureaucrats for advice. It becomes necessary for the changing governments to seek and rely on bureaucratic expertise for the officials in the secretariat or bureaucratic enterprises have more experience and technical knowledge needed to get a task done or a policy implemented.

However, there is not always a synergy between the bureaucracy and the government. Despite the efforts of multiple theorists to explain the relationship between political and bureaucratic administration, the real picture takes a different shape. A conflict or tension becomes almost inevitable between the two institutions. This natural tension arises out of the increasing dependency of the two upon each other. As the political leadership depends on the bureaucracy to perform according to the policy agendas of the governing political party while bureaucrats enjoy the discretion of the powers delegated to them. In ideal conditions, the bureaucracy is meant to serve the government and the people and implement the intended policies of the ministers while enjoying respect for their work and appointment from the political leaders (Svara, 2001). However, if the bureaucracy is partial in opposition to a particular political party, it could make it nearly impossible for the government to function. Which is why a synergy is necessary between the government and bureaucracy for good policymaking and implementation.

According to the British Institute of Government, good and efficient policymaking must check for some fundamentals (Hallsworth & Rutter, 2011). Goals of policies should be clear and evident. With the definition of the goal, the policy must also have adequate guideline about how that goal is to be achieved. Secondly, ideas play a vital role in the policymaking process in democracies. While the policies in an autocracy could be based on whims and ideas solely of the autocrats or authoritarian leaders, in democracies the policies are a result of ideas of multiple minds. These ideas should be innovative, better than previous policies and answer the prevailing questions. Thirdly, the policymaker should make sure that the design of policy and implementation is realistic and practical. The policymaking process should be assessed for its sustainability and ability to stand the test of time (Hallsworth & Rutter, 2011).

Furthermore, a policy has to keep the budget in account and time span in check. Accountability of policymakers and implementers is also fundamental for an ideal policymaking process. Corruption of all sorts must be checked and ruled out; preferably, the design of policy should be curated in a way that allows minimum space for corruption. The public feedback and amendment in the policies is the heart-line of a democratic policymaking. This is the sign of a responsive government and aware public.

One of the most studied and ideal model for policymaking is the Systems Model by Bill Jenkins and G.K. Robertson (Jenkins, 1997). The Systems model consists of Inputs, Political system, Policy output and Policy Outcome. The model suggests that resources, demands and supports enter the political system from the overall environment. These demands are converted to policies after thorough decision process within the political system. These decisions appear in the form of policies in the policy output. After this step, the policy undergoes implementation and either succeeds or fails. Thus, outcome of the policy is both development and welfare or it continues as the crisis that initiated the demands in the first place. The policy outcome goes back to the input step as positive or negative feedback, which prompts further action by policy makers.

This model follows a realistic and smooth model for policymaking; however, it does not address the complications, limitations or details of the decision making process itself that occurs within the political system. In its defense, one may say that the political system is vast and has many actors, which can perform ideally in a constructive and synergistic way for public welfare and larger state interests.

Policymaking is the process that requires power and authority. Without the authority, the policymakers cannot be considered responsible for running the state and solving its problems. The power is with the government and as the government branches out, power does too. The division of labour comes with division of authority and power. Although, in a democracy the power is derived from the people; the ultimate source of power are the people, but the real practices can differ. The powerful may act as they desire instead of what public desires. Karl Marx has done one of the most famous critiques of power. He suggests that power in capitalist systems rests with elites who work to form policies that benefit them. Karl Marx was apprehensive of the elite misusing the power and resources to benefit themselves. This eventually leads to inequalities and divides in the society.

Steven Luke’s criticism of pluralistic approach and the two-dimensional view of power allows for the three-dimensional view of power (Lukes, 1980). Lukes says that pluralistic approach in which there are many actors is prone to conflict and inaction. The decision-making in the pluralist system is weak and ineffective, even the public engagement can be low because people are motivated by ideologies, not arbitrary policies. Steven Lukes’ three-dimensional view of power argues that people accept a status quo after being motivated by a certain ideology. The status quo holds the power and carries out policymaking that people accept. There is more acceptance to this status quo’s policies because people adhere to it emotionally and do not think of opposition. The decisions of the status quo are even appreciated by the public and deemed beneficial. However, the public in this system is more prone to manipulation by the groups wielding power (UKEssays, 2018). Lukes’ criticism stands true as people continue to vote based on ideologies and broader visions. Once these popular leaders are elected, their policies are blindly accepted and considered beneficial by the public.

There are dire consequences of bad policymaking. Bad policies can make it hard for a government to carry out the mundane tasks of managerial and administrative nature. On the contrary, good policymaking can help a government navigate the state out of difficult crises such as terrorism, corruption, crime rate etc. Bad policies can not only halt the growth and development of the state but may also result in the reversing of the development. Furthermore, bad policies can harm the reputation of a state and influence global peace and trade as well. Considering the vital nature of policy-making, it becomes necessary for a democracy to ensure an efficient and welfare based policymaking process.

There certainly are states like Denmark, Sweden, Finland etc. where the government ensures that policies are in the best interest of the people. These countries have a welfare based policymaking process that involves the public. Whereas, there are states where policies and laws continue to harm the people. No effective regulation of gun laws and policies in the United States have led to multiple massacres, bad policies lead to corruption and lack of basic amenities in states like India and Pakistan etc. On the contrary, Pakistan’s effective policymaking and implementation in synergy with all state institutions also provide a successful story of bringing the state back to normal after a decade of terrorist horrors. Thus, the policymaking process is not one particular model of action. Rather, many models can work if only they consist of the fundamentals of good policymaking. The contemporary democracies have varying models of policymaking processes and none of them is an ideal process. However, the gap can be lessened by effective action and true democratic spirit.

References:

Fraussen, B., & Halpin, D. (2016). Think tanks and strategic policy-making: the contribution of think tanks to policy advisory systems. Policy Sciences, 50(1), 105–124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11077-016-9246-0

Gruber, J. E. (1987). Controlling Bureaucracies: Dilemmas in Democratic Governance. Publishing.cdlib.org; UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS. https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft1g500470

Gordon, I., Lewis, J., & Young, K. (1993). Perspectives on policy analysis. The policy process: a reader, 5-9.

Hallsworth, M. (2011). Policy-Making in the Real World. Political Insight, 2(1), 10–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2041-9066.2011.00051.x

Hallsworth, M., & Rutter, J. (2011). MAKING POLICY BETTER. https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/sites/default/files/publications/Making%20Policy%20Better.pdf

Jenkins, B. (1997). Policy analysis: Models and approaches. The policy process: A reader, 2.

Lukes, S. (1980). Three distinctive views of power compared. In Contemporary Sociology (Vol. 9, Issue 1, p. ). Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.2307/2065624

Minogue, M. (1983). Theory and practice in public policy and administration. Policy & Politics, 11(1), 63-85.

Svara, J. H. (2001). The Myth of the Dichotomy: Complementarity of Politics and Administration in the Past and Future of Public Administration. Public Administration Review, 61(2), 176–183. https://www.jstor.org/stable/977451?seq=1

UKEssays. (November 2018). Lukes' Three Dimensions of Power. Retrieved from https://www.ukessays.com/essays/politics/on-power.php?vref=1

In the globalized world, people increasingly trust and journey toward other lands to seek a better life. Some may have escaped a war-torn or a crisis-stricken home country and others may be seeking better means of livelihood. These people upon migrating to new states have to go through a set of procedures and the process leads them to their new place in a new society. However, to what extent the migrants are incorporated in the new state is defined by the laws of that state. This also indicates that not all people are able to enjoy the same rights, freedoms and status as others. Sociologists study the differences in status of these people and term this categorization as ‘civic stratification’, which is a result of certain legal guidelines and restrictions implemented by the host state (Leerkes et al., 2017). The new society now holds many new citizens with diverse backgrounds and different economic statuses as well. This essay probes into the meaning of stratification, its various causes and manifestations with an analysis of how civic stratification adds to the class-based understandings of inequality.

With time, the immigration flux increases and more people move toward places that they feel best suit their goals in life. Globalization has allowed people to imagine and conceptualize their movement to a foreign state in a convenient way relative to the old times. These people are then subject to a plethora of checks and processes which include bureaucratic and security processes as well. The states in an attempt to welcome their desired groups of migrants and filter out those that they deem unfavourable to their national interests formulate policies. Different researchers approach these laws from various perspectives; some see them as the manifestation of state power and sovereignty while others see immigration processes as a glimpse into the future of a ‘post-national society’ (Morris, 2003). However, it is the migrants who feel and live through the consequences of these policies and procedures and find themselves in different social positions. These differences in their positions may result due to difference in access to social, political and economic rights provided to them. The new layering or ranking in the social hierarchy based on legal or civic statuses given by the state is termed as civic stratification by immigration researchers. Lockwood (1996) introduced the term ‘civic stratification’ while discussing the inequalities in citizenry and its causes. Lockwood (1996) defines civic stratification as ‘ways in which the structuring of life chances and social identities is the direct or indirect result of the institutionalization of citizenship under conditions of social and economic inequality’.

Morris (2003) studies this categorization and ranking in terms of rights and identifies the civic stratification in European Union (EU). Civic stratification studies gained popularity and significance in EU when the open borders awarded full rights and liberties to migrants from EU member states. However, migrants from non-EU member states would have detailed and exhaustive processes to face, which would limit their movement and actions. For example, people from EU states would be able to reside, study and work without restrictions, whereas, non-EU national migrants would have restrictions. It not only leads to the limited access to resources but also rights. Morris (2003) studies the different legal status of citizens in EU, for instance, Third Country Nationals’ (TCN) status who are migrants from countries outside European Economic Area (EEA). Even in EU, old member states had more privileges and access to all the rights as compared to the new member states. The new member states would have a transitional period in which they had access to residential rights but had limited access to labour markets (Snel et al., 2014). This transitional period lasted for seven years but states could end them before this time as well. Romania and Bulgaria are two such states that applied for transitional period in EU as new member states (Snel et al., 2014). The citizens from different states other than EU or the new EU members enjoy even fewer rights and liberties based on their allotted status. This leads to further differentiated legal statuses.

Snel et al. (2014) divide the migrant workers based on their legal status as compliant, semi-compliant and non-compliant migrants. Compliant migrants are those that enjoy the residential as well as full access to labour markets. Semi-compliant migrants are those that enjoy the residential rights but their access to labour market or work is either limited or none at all according to the law so they go against it to work. The third category of migrant workers is of non-compliant migrant workers; these workers have neither the residential rights nor working to stay in a country and their stay is illegal. The illegal residents, if found are sent back to their countries of origin. However, the semi-compliant migrants are subjected to various policies that may restrict their movement or economic activity. These people then work or work more than the limited hours to make their ends meet. In the bigger picture, these legal statuses and differences lead to different socioeconomic statuses for the people too and lead to class divide.

Civic stratification is also manifest in the procedural status of the migrants; people who are asylum migrants may fall into various categories of naturalized citizens, permit holders, those with temporary legal stay and the unauthorized migrants (Leerkes et al., 2017). Such institutional limitations are the way that a bureaucracy denies or gives rights and access to its people in the long term. As discussed earlier, the subjects of civic stratification have different access to rights and this leads to the state’s surveillance and control of these people. The judges and courts may also, unintentionally play a role in civic stratification, by deciding the rights that an asylum seeker will enjoy upon admission (Leerkes et al., 2017). Thus, the refugees or asylum seekers end up in a hierarchical spectrum of migrants, stratified into groups of which the ‘naturalized citizens’ enjoy the top most positions with full access to all rights. The groups in lower civic strata are subject to high surveillance and have a high chance of getting arrested (Leerkes et al., 2017). Furthermore, many factors lead to the classification of an individual into certain civic stratum, as Leerkes et al. (2017) points out that a young male asylum seeker may enjoy fewer rights or may not even be allotted long-term residence permission as compared to a young female or a family man. This is because young males are often perceived as fortune seekers but family men or females are considered more needy and vulnerable.

Lockwood (1996) explains that civic stratification leads to different extent of social integration and eventually becomes a source of class inequalities. Lockwood (1996) proposes that civic stratification is based on two factors: the difference in citizenship rights and the access to moral and material resources. Based on this, the migrants who are desired by the state are in the most advantageous position as they enjoy all citizenship rights and also possess the material resources to benefit from these rights and do well in the society. Lockwood (1996) defines their position as ‘civic gain’. However, migrants who are limited by the institutions in their access to resources or rights and neither possess any moral or material resources are left with no choice but to be at the bottom of the civic stratification and a lower social class. This is termed as ‘civic exclusion’ by Lockwood. Two other possible situations the migrants may find themselves in is having resources but no rights (civic expansion) or having rights but no resources (civic deficit) (Lockwood, 1996). Thus, the civic stratification puts people in differently advantaged positions and leads to social inequalities. This adds to our understanding of class-based inequalities as well.

Citizenship in the modern times leads to rights but at the same time it has an exclusionary nature that deprives others of the same rights that are enjoyed by native born citizens or naturalised citizens (Morris, 2003). When this citizenship becomes the standard to live the best life, all migrants with status any less than this automatically fall into lower categories. One of the most glaring examples of limitations based on civic stratification can be found in the Middle East. The Kafala system in UAE, KSA is one of the systems that is designed to restrict the rights of migrants or foreign citizens (Robinson, 2021). People who migrate to the countries with Kafala system can neither enter the country nor leave or work without the Kafeel (employer or native sponsor). The kafala system puts the migrants in vulnerable positions often exploited or forced to live in extremely poor conditions (Robinson, 2021). Policies like this in states make class-based inequalities deeper and inevitable. In Britain, the policy of dealing with asylum seekers had always been to keep as few of them as possible (Schuster & Bloch, 2005). However, with time, the policies have improved and now the migrants may have a greater access to benefits.

In an interesting study by Snel et al. (2014), they found that in Netherland, the Polish migrants with more formal rights were less well off than Bulgarian or Romanian migrants who were in transitional period and were semi-compliant. The Romanian workers were earning more not only because they were doing all kinds of jobs without the permit but also because Dutch employers hired more Romanian skilled workers. Whereas, the Polish migrants were restricted because they enjoyed formal rights and remained in the formal minimum-paying jobs as were offered to them in their low-skilled or horticulture niche. Snel et al. (2014) term their position as ‘decommodified’. This data allows us that despite civic stratification, the access to education, skills, resources and the socioeconomic position that a migrant holds directly influence their status in the host society.

Another aspect in which the migrants face discrimination is that in many countries for a fixed period, the migrants are given food tokens instead of cash. These food tokens or vouchers not only deprive them of normal social activity that requires cash but also lead to discrimination by shopkeepers etc. The tokens become a stigma, a symbol of weakness, vulnerability and dependency that is looked down upon or excluded by the rest of the society (Morris, 2003). Similarly, movement restrictions also leads to a human right violation such as the right to movement or access the items of need etc. The situation becomes precarious when the international rights given to the migrants ensure the provision of very basic commodities such as food but not more. However, International Convention on Social and Economic Rights does not imply a right to residence or protection from removal. Under the ECHR, the right to life and freedom from inhuman and degrading treatment (articles 2 and 3) can be a basis for protection and support, but only for those with no feasible alternative, as for example in cases of failing health (Morris, 2003). In reality, these rights are not nearly enough to support a good life with an honourable social standing. Human prestige is not a part of these given rights nor the minimal conditions to ensure any type of social mobility. Furthermore, the migrants who are from certain ethnicities e.g. Islam, Punjabi Indians; or countries, for example, Palestine, Pakistan, Syria or African countries etc. are subject to further racism. These migrants face the institutional restrictions on top of racism and social stigmatisation based on stereotypes. It would be hard to expect such people to perform their best in the host society and exhibit ideal behaviours with poor living conditions, yet it is their lived reality.

The concept of full citizenship by Marshall gives an idea of how full-citizenship rights will guarantee a good life. Nevertheless, we see that civic stratification uncovers this model’s weaknesses and conflicts with reality. The new modern immigration policies are aimed at controlling the migrants, their surveillance and restriction of their movement in case of less desirable asylum seekers. So who is the most desirable? The migrants with the ability to contribute to the national economy and social interests are the most desirable. This further leads to a class-based filtering of migrants even before their arrival or their acceptance (Morris, 2015). One may see that the process of civic stratification can not only act as the cause of class-based inequality but also be rooted in it. Global or cosmopolitan ideas of citizenship or a ‘post-national society’ becomes an illusion when we refer to the conditions faced by migrant workers, labourers or asylum seekers. Nevertheless, many active organisations and human rights activists fight for the rights of the people. There is hope as long as the evolutionary process of law making and improving continues along with national and transnational movements for human rights.

The idea of global citizenship and global goals and standards of living also blur out when it comes to giving rights to the citizens because the states face the ‘liberal paradox (Hollifield, 2006). The host countries are mostly developed and liberal, these countries are the champions of human rights and democracy but when it comes to accepting refugees open-heartedly, they too face multiple hesitations. A conflict of interests and values occurs when accepting refugees. For example, there is always a national security risk when it comes to accepting refugees or asylum seekers from countries torn with terrorism. Or, there is always a threat that young males could be abusing the asylum process in search of fortune. Or, there is always a burden on the national treasure when accepting a large number of refugees who are mostly dependent and do not possess material resources etc. However, these are not and cannot be the justification for poor human rights access to refugees and a more comprehensive solution to the problem should be devised.

In conclusion, civic stratification is the institutional actions that categorise migrants or asylum seekers into certain statuses by providing them certain right while depriving them of others. Civic stratification manifests in different ways and forms in different countries and regions. However, the prime victim in these institutional practices are the asylum seekers who have already escaped a worse life and are in search of refuge. The migrants then face layers of discrimination and stigmatisation based on their background and their legal or ‘civic’ status. These people are deprived of their life chances and an equal opportunity to grow and excel in life. If given equal opportunities, the migrants who fall in lower civic strata may also prove to be positively contributing citizens of the host state.

References

Hollifield, J. F. (2006). The Emerging Migration State1. International Migration Review, 38(3), 885–912. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2004.tb00223.x

Leerkes, A., Engbersen, G., Snel, E., & de Boom, J. (2017). Civic stratification and crime. A comparison of asylum migrants with different legal statuses. Crime, Law and Social Change, 69(1), 41–66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-017-9743-x

Lockwood, D. (1996). Civic Integration and Class Formation. The British Journal of Sociology, 47(3), 531. https://doi.org/10.2307/591369

Morris, L. (2003). Managing Contradiction: Civic Stratification and Migrants’ Rights. International Migration Review, 37(1), 74–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2003.tb00130.x

Morris, L. (2015). Squaring the circle: domestic welfare, migrants rights, and human rights. Citizenship Studies, 20(6–7), 693–709. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621025.2015.1122741

Robinson, K. (2021, March 23). What Is the Kafala System? Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/what-kafala-system#chapter-title-0-7

Snel, E., Faber, M., & Engbersen, G. (2014). Civic Stratification and Social Positioning: CEE Labour Migrants without a Work Permit. Population, Space and Place, 21(6), 518–534. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.1846

Schuster, L., & Bloch, A. (2005). Asylum Policy under New Labour. Benefits, 13(2), 115–118. https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/2535

The world after the Second World War and more so after the end of the Cold War underwent waves of globalisation, allowing the people from different regions of the world with markedly different cultures, religions, colours etc. to inhabit lands other than their homelands. The people settling in new places confronted the inevitable cultural issues that would arise when their original culture collided with the culture of the country they chose for immigration. Furthermore, political unrest, economic crisis and wars in their homeland have also forced the people to migrate or seek refuge in more stable and developed countries. The growing population of such diverse groups in the developed world, especially in the American and European continents has compelled many sociologists to study and address the issues that arise in these increasingly multicultural societies. Sociologists contemplate questions that address issues such as cultural integration, separatism, political and economic rights, equal public treatment, non-discrimination, protection of culture, assimilation etc. of the minority groups in the dominant culture. This essay studies the main sociological issues that are raised by the idea of a multicultural society.

One definition of multiculturalism may be that it ‘refers to the state of a society or the world in which there exists numerous distinct ethnic and cultural groups seen to be politically relevant’ (Ivison, 2001). It is a state of such plurality in society where a number of cultural or ethnic groups live together in a shared social and political framework (Brooks, 2002). Most of the developed democratic societies are multicultural today where people hailing from different parts of the world have either immigrated or sought refuge. Furthermore, it would be safe to say that indigenous cultures of countries are also diverse and hardly ever a single national culture. The new cultural and ethnic groups are accommodated differently in different countries according to the nature of the laws and the culture of the dominant group. The dominant group would be the one that makes up the majority of the local people who have all the rights and liberties as given by their constitution while the minority cultures would be the ones smaller in population, immigrated groups, refugees etc. There is a debate in nearly all multicultural societies about the fair treatment of minority cultural groups and the interaction of these cultures and their members with the dominant group. In these multicultural societies, many fundamental problems arise that render multiculturalism a controversial subject.

One of the major sociological debates about a multicultural society is related to the interaction of the minority cultures with the dominant culture. Whether the new cultural groups should be integrated, assimilated, separated or excluded (Berry, 2011). The debates within sociology address such issues that study which of the policies would best suit a certain situation. Whether the new cultures should be expected to blend into the local culture or preserve their own distinct cultural identity. For instance, if one supports the policy of assimilation that most closely resembles the melting pot theory of the American culture, would it be fair to assimilate all kinds of people who find themselves within American borders for longer periods. Therefore, it must be taken into account that in a multicultural society, the different cultural groups do not always share the same ambition and reason to be in the new land. The willingness of an immigrant who has moved in search for a better life to assimilate into the native culture would be more than someone who has fled their war-torn country to survive. The latter would indeed be living in the new country with their hearts still longing for their home. The treatment of these two categories of people should be different but it is challenging to create such laws and policies that guarantee fair and equitable treatment.

Cultural integration means the ‘the maximal learning and memory by individuals and minimal forgetting of earlier-established ways of living’ (Berry, 2011). This means that the new groups will learn and accept the local culture of the larger society without giving up their original culture. This promises that the people enjoy the freedom to continue speaking their language, practising their religion, wearing their cultural clothes and continue their cultural beliefs within the larger society. At the same time, the people will have to pay equal respect and welcome the local cultures and learn. Cultural integration almost proposes an ideal situation for a multicultural society. Whereas, the most prevalent form of interaction between the diverse groups in the larger societies is that of assimilation. Assimilation refers to the ‘maximal learning of features of the dominant society by non-dominant individuals, combined with minimal memory for (maximal forgetting of) features of one’s heritage culture’ (Berry, 2011). This would mean a situation where the people are expected by the larger dominant groups to acculturate and blend into their culture with minimum expression of their own cultural identities. Berry (2011) calls the expectations and preferences of the dominant group regarding the non-dominant groups to be acculturation expectations, while the actions and preferences of the non-dominant ethnic and cultural groups about their interaction with the dominant group are termed acculturation strategies. In a multicultural ideology the dominant groups makes equal effort to accommodate the non-dominant groups.

Another important issue that arises in the above-mentioned situation is the failure to assimilate or integrate into the larger society. In the situation where there is an overpowering tendency in the non-dominant groups to melt into the new culture and maintain their own cultural practices while at the same time the dominant cultural groups do not accommodate the new groups either, separation may result. Whereas a failure to integrate or accommodate a cultural group that is willing to keep minimal knowledge of their heritage and wishes to become an integral part of the society may result in the marginalisation and discrimination of the people (Berry, 2011). For example, the successors of Turkish ‘guest-workers’ in Germany are denied any kind of civic rights and are not accepted by the larger German society, while for the Turkish successors Germany is the only place they have ever lived in, the only home they know (Kymlicka, 1996b).

Multiculturalism finds itself wound up in the very fundamental aspects of the modern society that is a predominantly liberal one. The ‘societal culture’ gives the meaning to the life of its members in nearly all social, economic, religious, educational spheres (Kymlicka, 1996a). This societal culture in small democratic nations tend to be standardised and are closely linked with democracy and modernization where they guarantee the equality of opportunity and rights to all the people (Kymlicka, 1996a). The immigrant groups do not succeed in building a space for themselves in the public institutions; however, they reject Anglo-conformity within their private lives and continue to practise their cultural beliefs and speak their language at home. Even still by the third generation in the host land, the traces of their culture fade out and the people are largely assimilated. Kymlicka (1996a) believes this to be true in most western countries. On the other hand, he sees that people that belong to a separate nation within the larger society tend to protect and preserve their culture more strongly, such as the Indian tribes in the America, the Quebecois in Canada etc.

In the modern liberal world that guarantees equal treatment to all and a greater degree of individual rights and freedom, a main sociological issue arises when there is a conflict between individual freedom and the freedom allowed to the cultural groups. Liberalism allows people to choose their own life; it gives the freedom to an individual to decide his ends and the means to achieve those ends. However, in most cultures there are certain restraints that are applied to the lives of the members of the group. For example, the cultural beliefs of certain groups do not allow their women to work, or for their young ones to choose their own path in life, or the ethnoreligious Amish people who forbid any use of modern technology to their people etc. However, liberalists believe that even if an individual may be wrong in their convictions, they deserve the right to study their condition and choose for themselves. This individualism that is promised by liberalism is considered a threat to the original cultures that could undergo ‘structural decay or debasement’ as Dworkin puts it. However, Kymlicka argues that even liberalists like Rawls believe that people find it hard to give up their culture and are strongly attached to their cultural roots (Kymlicka. 1996a). He claims that most liberalists believe that freedom of choice should be allowed while ascribing to one’s culture.

It is a sociological debate that continues in this regard about how to strike a balance between the individual rights and the differentiated rights for the groups. Most of the indigenous cultural minority groups do not oppose socioeconomic development if they can reap the benefit as well. However, in some cases, the integrational policies are also used against the non-dominant cultures as well. For example, the Brazilian government interpreted land laws in such a way that only allowed the land to the ‘real Indians’- those that had renounced all kinds of modernity and development and continued in their ancient ways. This resulted in no Indians being able to demand land because all of them had benefited from the industrialised world (Kymlicka, 1996a). However, Kymlicka (1996a) believes that all cultures are dynamic and not static; if left without any evolution, they would ossify and erode.

One of the major questions in a multicultural society is about recognition of the non-dominant cultural groups. Charles Taylor in his ‘Politics of Recognition’ supports the view that ‘due recognition is not just a courtesy we owe people. It is a vital human need’ (Taylor, 1992). The desire to be our authentic selves, true to our distinct origin and culture brings out this need to be recognised and valued in multicultural environments. Taylor argues that due to the inclination of the modern human to look inward and the deterioration of social hierarchies has made diverse cultural groups to seek recognition and equal treatment. Liberalism claims to be neutral, however, Taylor (1992) charges this neutrality of liberalism to be slightly inaccurate. Taylor believes that liberalism does not give equal treatment to all cultures rather a range of cultures that are more conforming to western culture, while it stands incompatible with certain other cultures for example the Muslim society. For example, the Swiss opposition to building minarets for Muslim mosques shows opposition and less support for accommodation to the Muslim cultures (Traynor & editor, 2009). The recent uproar against the French for banning face veil for the Muslim women poses a similar situation. Taylor (1992) believes that in order to fight arrogance and bad judgment about the non-dominant cultures, there should be a recognition of all cultures to be of value and for this, he believes a study of cultures is required.

A crucial debate that arises is that if the groups were meant to be recognised and given autonomy, should they also be separated from the public institutions. The demand for autonomy and to be left alone in the internal practices imply that groups require autonomy to preserve their culture. There is one view that liberals of the larger society should allow autonomy to the minority groups so long as they do not demand support from the larger society and do not proselytize. However, Kymlicka (1996b) views this as a mistaken idea, that there are certain limits within any country to which autonomy could be given to the ethno cultural groups. Kymlicka (1996b) claims that tolerance of religion and cultures in liberalism has taken a form of individual freedom of conscience. Liberalists believe that those that demand religious freedom and tolerance are not those who respect an individual’s freedom of conscience; rather they seek the power to restrict the lives of their own members. Thus, liberals believe in a tolerance that comes with individual autonomy. There should be such a liberal policy that affords the groups their rights to profess and propagate their culture and religion but not if they cross the limit of a group or its member’s civil rights.

On the other hand, Jurgen Habermas views that in the political world groups work as collective actors in pursuit of collective goods (Habermas, 1995). Habermas opposes Charles Taylor’s view of individual identity above the group identity. Rather, Habermas believes that a person’s individual identity cannot be separated from the collective identity that produced him. The rights of the people cannot be guaranteed ‘without protecting the intersubjectively shared experiences and life contexts in which the person has been socialized and has formed his or her identity’ (Habermas, 1995). The system of rights should be for all irrespective of their class or cultural differences. If the collective actors are left to struggle for their collective rights and recognition, they may become a separatist movement. Political representation and inclusion is the only way to guarantee full rights to people. In many countries, citizenship requires being of the same culture that inevitably denies rights to those who have migrated even if they are born in the same country. This is true for Arab countries, European countries like Germany etc.

Another main sociological topic that concerns multicultural societies addresses the problem of post-colonial societies. This type of multiculturalism exists in post-colonial states, which struggle to find a balanced space between their native culture and the culture of their past colonizers, these societies still live under a complex where they look up to and glorify the colonizer’s culture. However, this state of biculturalism or having the advantage of both cultures is termed by Homi K. Bhabha as Hybridity who sees this in a positive light (Mambrol, 2019). This view has been popularised among many post-colonial states especially the Asian and African states.

There are myriad sociological issues that stem from the idea of a multicultural identity. The field of sociology is constantly evolving with newer theoretical debates about the multicultural world. The future is bound to be more diverse, the true place of each individual with respect to their heritage and the larger society is always under study and evolution. Different societies bestow different level of freedom and integration to the non-dominant groups. One thing is clear that wherever the basic human rights find respect and fulfilment, there will always be a possibility for successful social integration.

References

• Habermas, J. (1995). Struggles for Recognition in the Democratic Constitutional State. Multiculturalism, 107–148. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400821402-008

• Ivison, D. (2001). Multiculturalism. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 10169–10175. https://doi.org/10.1016/b0-08-043076-7/01059-7

• Kymlicka, W. (1996a). Freedom and Culture. Multicultural Citizenship, 75–106. https://doi.org/10.1093/0198290918.003.0005

• Kymlicka, W. (1996b). Toleration and Its Limits. Multicultural Citizenship, 152–172. https://doi.org/10.1093/0198290918.003.0008

• Mambrol, N. (2019, January 5). Homi Bhabha’s Concept of Hybridity. Literary Theory and Criticism. https://literariness.org/2016/04/08/homi-bhabhas-concept-of-hybridity/

• Taylor, C. (1992). The Politics of Recognition. http://fs2.american.edu/dfagel/www/Class%20Readings/Taylor/multiculturalism.pdfTraynor, I., & editor, E. (2009, November 29). Swiss vote to ban construction of minarets on mosques. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/nov/29/switzerland-bans-mosque-minarets