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(Image credit © John, 2006)
The Kelp Forest
The Kelp Forest
The ecosystem of the sea otter is called a kelp forest. These marine "forests" are dense with growth of towering, anchored kelp providing shelter and food for a vast variety of species. They're comparable to coral reefs: a shallow water gathering place with abundant food, shelter, and an exponentially larger biomass (total mass of living organisms) than the majority of the ocean and some of the highest concentrations of marine biodiversity on earth (IUPAC 1997).
Because algal seaweeds such as kelp are photosynthetic, they are found in shallow open waters, typically cold and subtropic. The thick mass of kelp provides a valuable shelter for countless species and the nutrient-rich kelp is a food source for many grazing species. Not just fish rely on these ecosystems, though: "Among the many mammals and birds that use kelp forests for protection or feeding are seals, sea lions, whales, sea otters, gulls, terns, snowy egrets, great blue herons, cormorants, and shore birds." (What is a kelp forest?, 2021)
Bald eagles were famously affected by kelp forest destruction and forced to find new food sources as their main prey is typically fish, and their populations have been greatly affected by kelp forest health (Bland, 2017).
Sea Otter Niche
Sea Otter Niche
Sea otters occupy an important ecological niche known as foragers (Layman et al., 2015) . The definition of forager changes depending on the opinion of the evolutionary biologist you ask, but generally they travel and seek out food sources, and their resources are ones not typically exploited by most other organisms (Sargeant, 2007). Otters are specialist foragers, and their prey is not preyed upon by most other predators in their ecosystem. The forage by diving to the seafloor, combing for invertebrates, especially sea urchins and clams (Kvitek et al., 1993). Their prey is often infaunal, which are invertebrate living in the sediment of an aquatic ecosystem, often creating a complex matrix of structures beneath the substrate (Gutiérrez et al., 2012). Their specialist behavior is consequently vital to the health of the ecosystem, as when their population falls, their prey has no predator to cull the population and rapidly becomes overpopulated, ravaging the ecosystem and creating a critical imbalance. The invertebrates, sea urchins specifically, are very destructive and have a devastating impact on the kelp beds, destroying the very foundation of the ecosystem (Konar, 2000).
Species Interactions
Species Interactions
- Orcas
Despite efforts to re-populate the Aleutian Islands with sea otters after the disastrous Maritime Fur Trade, the sea otter population in the region is still decreasing at high rates. One of the major hypotheses to explain this occurrence is an increase in predation by orcas (Orcinus orca). The basis of this theory relies on three key points of evidence. The first is that starting in the 1990's, there has been a dramatic increase in observations of orca attacks on sea otters, and this data coincides with the decrease in sea otter populations. The second piece of evidence supporting this hypothesis is that in areas that cannot be accessed by orcas; for example, in lagoons, the population is declining at a much lower rate. The final piece of evidence pointing to orcas is that the estimations for the number of attacks necessary to explain this population decline strongly correlates with the number of attacks observed (KUKER & BARRETT-LENNARD, 2010).
But orcas and sea otters have coexisted throughout their evolutionary history with little-to-no interaction, and the predation of sea otters by orcas was very uncommon until recently. What can explain this sudden change in behavior? Well, many groups of orcas are exclusively mammal hunters, and recently, the populations of harbor seals and sea lions have been collapsing. A lack of abundance of their preferred traditional prey may have resulted in compensation through sea otter predation (KUKER & BARRETT-LENNARD, 2010).
2. Planktothrix
2. Planktothrix
Planktothrix spp. are cyanobacteria that produce a deadly neurotoxin called saxitoxin (EPA, 2022). It can accumulate in butter clams, one of the main prey species of sea otters, and cause an illness called paralytic shellfish poisoning. This illness can be fatal. In a study of captive sea otters, when presented with clams containing high levels of this toxin, they either reduce their rate of consumption of the dangerous clams or discard them completely. This implies that they have adapted to be able to sense the toxicity and avoid it (Kvitek et al., 1991).
Planktothrix spp. are cyanobacteria that produce a deadly neurotoxin called saxitoxin (EPA, 2022). It can accumulate in butter clams, one of the main prey species of sea otters, and cause an illness called paralytic shellfish poisoning. This illness can be fatal. In a study of captive sea otters, when presented with clams containing high levels of this toxin, they either reduce their rate of consumption of the dangerous clams or discard them completely. This implies that they have adapted to be able to sense the toxicity and avoid it (Kvitek et al., 1991).
3. Northern Abalone
The Northern abalone is an endangered species of marine gastropod mollusk. They have been historically overexploited by humans as a food source. Being one of the preferred prey of another endangered species, Enhydra lutris, proposes an interesting dynamic. One endangered species is actively hunting another endangered species. How do we protect one without hurting another? Researchers find that given the combination of human poaching and otter hunting, the Northern abalone population will continue to decline if serious interventions aren't taken (Chadès et al., 2012).
(Image credit: © Florian Graner, 2015)
(Image credit: © Florian Graner, 2015)
Bull kelp is a kind of brown algae seaweed that grows along the Pacific Coast, and is the foundation of the kelp forest ecosystem. This kelp can grow up to 10 inches a day (Monterey Bay Aquarium, 2014), and can total to 100 feet. They provide a crucial habitat for a vast host of organisms and are the foundation of the kelp forest ecosystem (Slater Museum of Natural History, 2013). While not currently listed as endangered, some environmental advocacy groups are seeking Endangered Species Act protections for the species as it plays such a crucial role in the kelp forest ecosystem (KIRO NEWSRADIO NEWSDESK, 2022).
Bull kelp is a kind of brown algae seaweed that grows along the Pacific Coast, and is the foundation of the kelp forest ecosystem. This kelp can grow up to 10 inches a day (Monterey Bay Aquarium, 2014), and can total to 100 feet. They provide a crucial habitat for a vast host of organisms and are the foundation of the kelp forest ecosystem (Slater Museum of Natural History, 2013). While not currently listed as endangered, some environmental advocacy groups are seeking Endangered Species Act protections for the species as it plays such a crucial role in the kelp forest ecosystem (KIRO NEWSRADIO NEWSDESK, 2022).
Kingdom: Chromista
Phylum: Gyrista
Subphylum: Ochrophytina
Class: Phaeophyceae
Order: Laminariales
Family: Laminariaceae
Genus: Nereocystis
Species: Nereocystis luetkeana
(Schoch CL et al., 2020)
(Image credit: © Rylee Isitt 2010)
(Image credit: © Rylee Isitt 2010)
Steller's Sea Lion is a near-threatened marine mammal and one of the largest species of pinnipeds on Earth. Kelp forests are home to many of their staple foods and are used as nurseries for their pups (Permyakov & Burkanov, 2009). Between 1970-1990, their population was reduced by 70% for reasons unknown. It hit an all-time low in 2000, but since then their populations are slowly increasing (Gelatt, T. & Sweeney, K., 2016).
Steller's Sea Lion is a near-threatened marine mammal and one of the largest species of pinnipeds on Earth. Kelp forests are home to many of their staple foods and are used as nurseries for their pups (Permyakov & Burkanov, 2009). Between 1970-1990, their population was reduced by 70% for reasons unknown. It hit an all-time low in 2000, but since then their populations are slowly increasing (Gelatt, T. & Sweeney, K., 2016).
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Otariidae
Genus: Eumetopias
Species: E. jubatus
(NOAA, 2022)
(Image credit: © David Slater 2008)
(Image credit: © David Slater 2008)
The Elegant Tern is a near-threatened carnivorous marine-diving ; much of its prey lives in the kelp ecosystem. The species typically nests in Mexico and Southern California, however as a migratory bird it can be found from the Northern tip of the West Coast in the United States down the coast all the way to mid-Chile (IUCN, 2020).
The Elegant Tern is a near-threatened carnivorous marine-diving ; much of its prey lives in the kelp ecosystem. The species typically nests in Mexico and Southern California, however as a migratory bird it can be found from the Northern tip of the West Coast in the United States down the coast all the way to mid-Chile (IUCN, 2020).
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Charadriiformes
Family: Laridae
Genus: Thalasseus
Species: T. elegans
(IUCN 2020)
(©Ken-ichi Ueda 2008)
(©Ken-ichi Ueda 2008)
This unique organism is a shockingly orange sea sponges typically found in West Coast kelp beds and forests. They reproduce both sexually and asexually and their main predators are nudibranchs, marine gastropod mollusks commonly called "sea slugs" (Sanctuary Simon, 2022). The species is not currently listed on any endangered species indexes.
This unique organism is a shockingly orange sea sponges typically found in West Coast kelp beds and forests. They reproduce both sexually and asexually and their main predators are nudibranchs, marine gastropod mollusks commonly called "sea slugs" (Sanctuary Simon, 2022). The species is not currently listed on any endangered species indexes.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Porifera
Class: Demospongiae
Order: Tethyida
Family: Tethyidae
Genus: Tethya
Species: T. californiana
(Schoch CL, et al., 2020)
(Image credit: © Shari Green)
(Image credit: © Shari Green)
The sunflower sea star is a critically endangered sea star, its biggest threat is sea star wasting syndrome which has reduced its population over 90% since 2013 with an estimated 5.75 billion deaths since that year (NOAA 2021). A predator species, they eat a large variety of invertebrates, including urchins (Oregon Conservation Strategy, 2021).
The sunflower sea star is a critically endangered sea star, its biggest threat is sea star wasting syndrome which has reduced its population over 90% since 2013 with an estimated 5.75 billion deaths since that year (NOAA 2021). A predator species, they eat a large variety of invertebrates, including urchins (Oregon Conservation Strategy, 2021).
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Echinodermata
Class: Asteroidea
Order: Forcipulatida
Family: Asteriidae
Genus: Pycnopodia
Species: P. helianthoides
(IUCN 2020)
(Image credit: © Jerry Kirkheart 2009)
(Image credit: © Jerry Kirkheart 2009)
Brown Turban Snail
Brown Turban Snail
The brown turban snail is small marine gastropod often found on bladder kelp in the Eastern Pacific Ocean (LOWRY et al., 1974). It is not listed as endangered on any index.
The brown turban snail is small marine gastropod often found on bladder kelp in the Eastern Pacific Ocean (LOWRY et al., 1974). It is not listed as endangered on any index.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Gastropoda
Subclass: Vetigastropoda
Order: Trochida
Superfamily: Trochoidea
Family: Tegulidae
Genus: Tegula
Species: T. brunnea
(NCBI, 2018)
(Image credit: ©James Maughn 2016)
(Image credit: ©James Maughn 2016)
The butter clam is an abundant large clam whose range extends from the Aleutian Islands down to Central California. It is one of the largest components of the diet of Enhydra lutris (Kvitek et al., 1993). It is not endangered. It can contain high levels of toxins when pollution or toxic cyanobacteria is present (Cowles 2005).
The butter clam is an abundant large clam whose range extends from the Aleutian Islands down to Central California. It is one of the largest components of the diet of Enhydra lutris (Kvitek et al., 1993). It is not endangered. It can contain high levels of toxins when pollution or toxic cyanobacteria is present (Cowles 2005).
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Bivalvia
Subclass: Heterodonta
Order: Veneroida
Family: Veneridae
Genus: Saxidomus
Species: S. gigantea
(Arctos 2020)
(Image credit: ©Ed Bierman 2016)
(Image credit: ©Ed Bierman 2016)
A shallow water crustacean and integral part of the kelp forest ecosystem, they predate on kelp-destroying species and protect the habitat for the thousands of species that call the kelp forest home (U.S. National Park Service). While hunted frequently, it is currently listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List (Butler et al., 2011).
A shallow water crustacean and integral part of the kelp forest ecosystem, they predate on kelp-destroying species and protect the habitat for the thousands of species that call the kelp forest home (U.S. National Park Service). While hunted frequently, it is currently listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List (Butler et al., 2011).
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Crustacea
Class: Malacostraca
Order: Decapoda
Family: Palinuridae
Genus: Panulirus
Species: P. interruptus
(Butler et al., 2011)
(Image credit: ©Eva Funderburgh 2012)
(Image credit: ©Eva Funderburgh 2012)
The brown rockfish, is vulnerable to overfishing but is not currently endangered. The live in kelp forests and have venomous spines. They regulate air in their swim bladders, an organ to help fish with buoyancy, but that air can cause their bladders to explode if they are brought to the surface too quickly. Their bodies are mottled brown and can grow 22 inches long (Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife, 2022).
The brown rockfish, is vulnerable to overfishing but is not currently endangered. The live in kelp forests and have venomous spines. They regulate air in their swim bladders, an organ to help fish with buoyancy, but that air can cause their bladders to explode if they are brought to the surface too quickly. Their bodies are mottled brown and can grow 22 inches long (Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife, 2022).
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Scorpaeniformes
Family: Scorpaenidae
Genus: Sebastes
Species: S. auriculatus
(NCBI 2020)
(Image credit: ©Richard Droker 2014)
(Image credit: ©Richard Droker 2014)
Cyanobacteria, also known as blue green algae, are typically found in freshwater. But it can wash out to sea and cause problems for the kelp forest habitat. It is definitely not endangered; instead, its blooms can prove quite toxic for sea otters. a common toxin that comes from this bacteria, microcystins, have been found in dead sea otters (Facts About Cyanobacterial Blooms for Poison Center Professionals | CDC, n.d.)
Cyanobacteria, also known as blue green algae, are typically found in freshwater. But it can wash out to sea and cause problems for the kelp forest habitat. It is definitely not endangered; instead, its blooms can prove quite toxic for sea otters. a common toxin that comes from this bacteria, microcystins, have been found in dead sea otters (Facts About Cyanobacterial Blooms for Poison Center Professionals | CDC, n.d.)
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: cyanobacteria
Class: Cyanophyceae
(NCBI 2020)
References:
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