After successfully completing this week's Learning Module, you should:

• Know what an editorial is and the role public argument plays in shaping opinion

• Develop a deeper understanding of audience and how it can affect writing

• Review rhetorical elements in published writing and understand best practices for rhetorical reading

• Review the Essay #2 assignment sheet, scoring rubric, and samples

• Begin thinking about potential topics, issues, and positions for Essay #2

This week you'll begin the second essay assignment. That essay will focus on finding a debatable issue in a community where you are a member, specifically higher education, and then taking a position you support with evidence. However, this will not be a formal research essay like you might have written for other classes; your evidence in this case will only require strong signal phrases to show attribution and will not use citations or a Works Cited page (something we'll learn about more on the third essay). This is because you're shifting from a formal, expert audience to a broader public audience. 

Arguments like this are common as editorials and op-eds in newspapers and news sites online, and they play a significant role in shaping public opinion. While there are some common elements with other written arguments you've likely done, it becomes especially important to establish a clear problem that you are responding to since it's possible readers aren't in your community or they don't see the problem you do. It's also important to include a naysayer (also called potential objections or a counterargument) since some readers may have strong opinions that disagree with your own. And finally, it's crucial to establish and leverage your own credibility as a member of the community so readers trust you. 

By the end of this week you should be familiar with the assignment, have looked at the assignment sheet and some samples, learned more about key features for this kind of writing, and made a decision about two potential topics/issues (one primary, one backup). Next week we'll begin by developing an outline and reviewing how to sufficiently prove each of our assertions.

-----

You can see a video walkthrough of this week's assignments and where to submit them here.

What Is a Public Argument and How Is It Different? 

Public argument is a kind of writing that's intended to shape people's ideas or behaviors. It's intended to be accessible to a wide audience and often engages with smaller local problems where extensive scholarly evidence and data isn't available. Still, it will often require credible websites and clear examples to support assertions; that's how we turn a simple opinion into an argument that has value for readers.

Here are some of the key differences between this kind of public argument and formal research essays like the ones you typically write in college classes:

As you review these differences, pay attention to how many elements of writing depend upon who the audience is and what the author's purpose is. Some, of course, also depend on external factors like assignment requirements. The key is to notice how your Essay #2 might be similar but significantly different than the other writing you've done in school and how those adjustments are based on the idea that we want to reach the broadest audience possible. 

Key Features and Terminology for Public Argument

To help get a broad picture of the basic elements you'll need to write a successful essay, I want to spend a few minutes reviewing the key features (i.e. what you need to do) for this kind of writing and the necessary terminology (i.e. how we'll talk about your work) for the assignment we're about to start. Some of this, you'll notice, will be familiar from prior writing assignments you've done since it's grounded in the same research on persuasive rhetoric that has influenced how we teach writing for centuries. 

Key Features

Public arguments focus on convincing readers to see things the way we do or act in a particular way. Often they are structured to both identify and explain a problem (exigence) as well as present a solution (thesis). That means they should use a prescriptive (aka normative) claim with reasons to help map the argument and keep the body focused. Public arguments will also include at least one objection/reply and focus on explaining the benefits if readers agree in the conclusion to build significance and value for our ideas. More on these things in a minute. 

Terminology

Because we'll use some potentially unfamiliar terminology in the Learning Module and when talking about your writing, I want to take a second to outline the most important stuff here. If you ever can't recall one of these concepts remember to look back to this page or search the Learning Modules site for a refresher. 

Exigence -- This refers to a problem or current event your essay is responding to. Sometimes that problem/current event is familiar to readers, but other times we have to work hard to establish it clearly. Remember, this move is a more advanced variation on the "hook" you might have learned in high school, but it works to develop a deeper engagement and investment in the resolution you propose as your thesis. 

Note: Public argument essays, like your editorial, need to pay additional attention to exigence since it's possible readers aren't a member of the community you're writing from or that they don't see the problem/current event you see. 

Here are some examples of current events or problems related to our focus on writing about higher education:

• Impacts of the COVID-19 response (campus closures, communication, safety policies)

• Digital divide and access to technology

• College affordability 

• Basic needs, like housing, food, childcare

• Workforce development (majors, courses, internships, etc.)

Again, the common theme with these examples, aside from their shared focus on our theme of higher education for this class, is that they represent a current event or problem facing the particular community you're writing about. 

Background -- This is not where you dump facts to add length to a paper (like I know I did in high school), but rather a place to help everyone start on the same page with the same information about the topic before they get too deep into your essay. Think about it as filling the gaps between what readers likely know and what they need to know in order to follow you. Just keep it short so you can maintain a clearly persuasive purpose without slowing readers down too much.

Thesis -- I know you know this works as the central focus for your essay, or the one big thing you're working to prove for readers. What I want you to work on for our class is seeing the thesis as having both a claim (any debatable statement) and reasons (why readers should agree). The debatable statement part can be tricky, so just remember that it has to be a position that a reasonable person might challenge. For example, claiming that it's 78 degrees outside is not debatable because it can be measured (we might argue about the measurement, but there is a correct answer somewhere); on the other hand, claiming 78 degrees is too hot for a classroom is debatable because it can't be settled with a measurement (that is, we could fight about it). 

For this essay I'll encourage you to use this thesis formula: claim + because + reasons

Topic Sentence -- This is the first sentence in a body paragraph. Its job is to setup the one thing that paragraph will prove. It works like a label on a jar of spices; if the label says cinnamon then there better only be cinnamon there. The topic sentence should have a clear connection back to the thesis (specifically a reason from the thesis) and it should include a transition between paragraphs.

Transition -- Most of the time you're moving from one body paragraph to the next as you add to the previous point to create a complete argument. That means your transitions would be words like "also" or "another" to show addition. While you can use the generic "First," "Second," "Third" it is the less experienced approach and gets tough with longer arguments. Other kinds of transition include continuation where you start a new paragraph to prove the same reason (something you'll have to do at least once in this essay) or example where you spend a whole paragraph on an extended example. We'll review these in more detail as we move closer to a full draft.

Evidence -- Here I just need to remind you that there is more than one kind of evidence and that not every point can be proven with data or statistics (nor should it). This essay has no requirement or expectation to use scholarly sources because it's not something a less formal audience requires. Instead, you'll likely end up using credible websites. We'll spend more time next week reviewing what specifically makes a website credible.  

Attribution -- This is an important distinction when you write with outside sources. Attribution refers to the work we do to signal ownership of words or ideas. We do that, if you recall, by using signal phrases before every single bit of outside information. The key for you is to remember that they're necessary, to remember how to do them (especially with an author's credentials, not a title), and to know that they are not the same as citing a source formally. 

Since this essay requires attribution but not documentation with formal citations you'll absolutely need to use signal phrases to avoid issues of plagiarism. Make sure you know them well. 

Naysayer -- This is a separate paragraph before the conclusion where you a) introduce an objection to your argument from outside (Some people might argue...) and then b) in the second sentence give your reply (refute: say they're wrong, or concede: say they're right but so are you). Each objection needs its own paragraph and you can have as many as one fewer than the total number of reasons on your side (e.g. 3 thesis reasons means up to 2 naysayer paragraphs). You don't need to use a source in this section since it's a less formal approach than in the argument, but you can if it seems appropriate. 

Benefits -- This is the last thing we do in the conclusion for this kind of writing, and the purpose is to offer some concrete positive things to specific stakeholders that establish significance. The goal is to help them see your argument as more than just an abstract point but rather as something relevant to them personally. Really, this is the most important move in a conclusion and one you should take seriously. 

Rhetorical Analysis, or How to Follow Models

Okay, enough review. How does this stuff take shape outside of our class in published writing? To help answer that question, and to help you learn what moves to imitate in your own work, I want to talk about rhetorical analysis. 

Pardon me while I nerd for a minute to explain. Rhetoric refers to the kinds of tools and techniques writers use to accomplish their purpose. It might include, for example, the type of sources, the quantity of evidence, the number of naysayer objections, and even things like whether they define a term or use the word 'I' in their work. Analysis comes from an ancient Greek word analusis that means to loosen or tear something apart. Therefore "rhetorical analysis" means to look at successful writing and tear it apart to see the tools and techniques that make it work (I'll spare you the full explanation of mimesis, which is how we use analysis to improve our writing). 

One of your assignments this week will be to find a published editorial on any issue related to higher education (a topic similar to your own is best, of course) and do an informal one paragraph rhetorical analysis in our Canvas Discussions forum. I'll explain that in detail a bit later, but first, some additional explanation. 

How to Get Started

To get started preparing for the informal rhetorical analysis assignment that you'll post in the Discussions forum this week, an assignment that can be tricky at first, take a few minutes to review this handout from North Carolina State University. Make sure you pay attention to both how they explain the task and the specific technique they suggest. Again, you'll need to know these approaches for the Discussion Forum assignment explained below. 

"What in the World Is a Rhetorical Analysis?" from North Carolina State University

Once you feel like you understand the purpose of rhetorical analysis--to read and identify the techniques a writer uses to accomplish their purpose--look again to see that there are some specific questions to guide your own work, specifically a worksheet on the fourth page to help you get started reading closely. 

Best Practices for Reading

Unlike the types of sources you might think are the most credible when doing formal college writing, for this assignment you'll be reading a type of article that is a little more reader-friendly. And again, the focus for rhetorical analysis should be identifying published writing that is successful and similar to the writing you'll do; that means as you read, you'll focus on how the author writes, not what they say. 

When it comes to rhetorical analysis you don't have to read the subject text you find closely. More importantly, you're reading with a clear purpose which is to write something later (not to memorize and recall it on a test). In fact, if you use the handout above you'll even see questions to answer about the source text which can give you very specific focus for your own analysis. 

Activity: Informal Rhetorical Analysis

1) Start by finding an editorial about higher education. Editorials, remember, are specific sections in a newspaper (or other news organization) that are reserved for opinion; they represent a clearly marked break from reporting simple facts to allow for evaluation, judgment, and recommendation. 

To find editorials about higher education start by going to one of the following:

Diverse Issues in Higher Education Opinion

Inside Higher Ed Opinion

Higher Ed Dive Opinion

If you're looking for a local editorial about higher education consider using this one:

"Will Making Community College Free Make It Better?" by Jeff Jacoby in The Boston Globe

If you absolutely can't find anything on your own, use this op-ed:

"If Free College is the Goal, Start with Community College" by Michelle Miller-Adams in Politico

Keep in mind, you can pick any news organization you want as long as the page is clearly marked "opinion" or "editorial." Choosing a regular informative news story will mean an ineffective analysis and will hurt your grade for this assignment. If you're not sure that something is the correct kind of source text, consider emailing or texting your professor to double-check. 

2) Once you've picked a source text you should start by looking for examples of the terminology above (exigence, background, thesis, evidence, naysayer, benefits, etc.). That means looking to see if you can spot them but also to see things like the kind and quantity, how sources are given attribution, and the overall tone/language used. 

Then, consider the 10 additional questions from the handout above. 

3) For your post to the Discussion Forum, I want you to write a paragraph with the most important things you noticed about the author's rhetorical technique with as many of the points mentioned above as you can find. The only absolute requirement is that the first sentence of your post needs to establish what you're analyzing. 

For example, using the op-ed I provided above:

In the Politico op-ed "If Free College is the Goal, Start with Community College," which was published on February 4th of 2021, Michelle Miller-Adams argues... 

As I continue writing, I might say things like:

her exigence was... the thesis was... she provides background that... the tone was...  

This should only be one paragraph long but needs to address the rhetorical elements that stood out the most in your analysis. The last sentence in your post should explain what you noticed that you plan to adapt into your own Essay #2: 

In my own editorial essay, I want to include research to increase my credibility and focus on a national issue for higher education while emphasizing the local impact.

Once you finish writing, you'll post your analysis to the Discussion Forum. You do not need to post any replies, but it would be a good idea to read what other people noted to check your own understanding and see ways you can write an even stronger essay on your own topic later. You'll see another explanation of this assignment below and in the Activities chart. 

REMEMBER: This is just an informal activity to help you get more familiar with editorial writing; you are not starting your essay or choosing your topic at this point. 

Potential Topics, Issues, and Positions for Essay #2

While I won't ask you to make an absolute decision on what you'll write about for Essay #2 until early next week, I do want to explain the recommended process since it's a good way to get thinking about this early. To do that I'll explain one way to break down a vague assignment prompt. 

Topic

The topic refers to a very broad description of what you'll write about. For this essay, and for the other essays we'll do in this course, I've provided the topic since our course has a consistent theme. It's higher education. 

Issue

However, higher education isn't enough to get started. I mean, the risk is that you'd just ramble about what a college is or should be without having a concrete subject readers can relate to.

So the next level down, the one that helps us have focus, is to figure out what debatable issues there are for a specific community like higher education where you're a member. This is where it starts to get tricky. If you can't think of anything based on your own experience or the experience of others you know, it can help to do some informal research online (maybe in Google News) to see what debatable issues are already established for higher education. That takes the pressure off of you to be the first/only person to see something. 

How will you know it's a debatable issue? You can look online to see if people have different opinions, you can talk to people you know, you can even just imagine whether someone could reasonably disagree what you think. Again, your professor can help at this early stage where you're checking if something is feasible for the assignment.

Position

Once you know you have a debatable issue for higher education, you're ready to take a side. This is your position and it's one step away from a full thesis statement. As you think about the position you might take, you should recall this information from the Purdue OWL about what makes a good thesis and what kinds of claim are available for argument. When you're eventually ready you'd add some reasons why readers should agree and that's what you'd prove in the essay body.

Keep in mind, you don't need to make a decision quite yet. Just think about what you might want to write about, look around throughout your day, check online for what people have said, and ask questions if you want input before you get too far. 

Key Takeaways

• Written arguments that use research can come in more than one form, including less formal public-oriented attempts to change ideas or behaviors and the formal college writing with a Works Cited page you'll do most often in college classes. 

• Audience shapes most factors in writing, from the tone we use, the formality of our language, the word choice, the kind and amount of evidence, and the length. 

• Essay #2 is a public argument about a community where you are member, higher education; it will use sources that have high perceived credibility with signal phrases to show attribution but no formal MLA citations. 

• We can use rhetorical analysis to look at the writing techniques used in published editorials and get ideas for your own essay, especially if you haven't thought about this kind of writing before.

• The best way to get started is to list all the debatable issues for higher education you're aware of, do some informal research and reading, and then decide on your favorite based on what you and your readers would be most interested in reading. 

Reading Assignments

Essay #2 Assignment Sheet

Essay #2 Scoring Rubric

Student Samples:

"It’s Time to Remove Restrictions on Boston’s Tuition-Free Community College Plan" - Spring 2020

"Why Roxbury Community College Needs Competitive Sports" - Fall 2019

Process Portfolio Assignment Sheet

 "Op-ed Writing: Tips and Tricks" from The OpEd Project

Interested in getting your op-ed essay published? Start here to see publications and then review advice for pitching the writing here. Your professor can also help.