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In 1972, electrical engineer Sir Godfrey Hounsfield invented the first computed tomography (CT) scanner.[1] Around the same time, physicist Allan McLeod Cormack developed a similar system, and Hounsfield and Cormack shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1979.[2] CT has since become an imaging modality widely used in medicine.

CT images are two-dimensional pictures that represent three-dimensional physical objects. The images are made by converting electrical energy (moving electrons) into X-ray photons, passing the photons through an object, and then converting the measured photons back into electrons. The number of X-rays that pass through the object is inversely proportional to the density of the object. Objects (such as human beings) imaged by CT consist of parts that vary in density.

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The CT machine passes X-ray photons through each point in the object at different angles through 360 degrees. Fluctuations in the density of the different parts of the object change the intensity of photons that successfully pass through the object depending on the angles at which the beam of photons is shone. A computer processor uses the differences in successfully transmitted X-ray photon measurements to produce a dataset that recreates the 3D object based on its various densities and displays sequential images of this dataset as 2D slices on film or a screen. The quality of the images depends on multiple factors, primarily image resolution and image contrast.

CT scanners create images using a series of X-rays generated by a tube that is rapidly rotated around the examined object. X-rays are a type of electromagnetic energy that have properties of both particles and waves and a level of energy between ultraviolet rays and gamma-rays in the electromagnetic spectrum. CT scanning hardware consists of the following units:

The generator provides the electrical power that is necessary to generate x-rays using two types of electrical current. A high voltage (20-150 kiloVolts) supply determines the maximum intensity of the X-rays that can be produced. Increasing this voltage increases the electrical potential difference between the anode and cathode. A low fixed voltage (about 10 kiloVolts) supply to the cathode filament enables continuous electron emission through a thermionic reaction, which is discussed below.[3]

The X-ray tube converts moving electrons (i.e., electricity) into photons with the energetic properties (the wavelength and amplitude) of X-rays. The X-ray tube is composed of a cathode assembly, an anode assembly, and a rotor, all contained in a tube envelope and together forming a structure called the tube insert. All gas atoms in the space inside the tube envelope have been evacuated, forming a vacuum.[4] Modern CT scanner X-ray tubes usually are provided with 20-60 kiloWatts of electrical power.

The X-ray tube cathode filament (often made of tungsten) expels the electrons that are delivered to it through a process called thermionic emission. The current from the X-ray generator passing through the filament boils off electrons.[5] The emitted electrons are accelerated by the potential difference (i.e., the difference in charge) between the cathode and anode toward the anode (often also made from tungsten). The higher the voltage applied to this process (often 80 to 140 kiloVolts), the more the source accelerates the electrons. When the electrons collide with the focal spot in the anode, they generate electromagnetic radiation having the energy of X-rays via two methods:

The focal spot size can be altered according to the desired image resolution. In general, the smaller the focal size, the higher the image resolution. The process described in X-ray generation converts electric energy into 99% heat and only 1% photons. To absorb this large amount of heat, the space between the tube envelope and the tube housing contains oil for equipment cooling and insulation.

The photon detector (also called a photovoltaic cell and more simply termed a detector) absorbs and counts photons generated by the X-ray tube that passes through the patient. The detector consists of two layers; the scintillator layer and the photon tide later. The scintillator layer converts absorbed X-ray photons into visual light photons. The photon tide layer converts the light photons into electrical signals.

The generator produces an electrical current that runs into the X-ray tube and through the cathode wire filament. The current passes its electrons to the filament. The difference in electric charge between the cathode filament and anode across the vacuum draws the electrons toward the anode. Two distinct reactions in the anode convert 1% of the electrons that strike it into X-ray photons. These photons are directed through the scanned patient. The shielding elements help to reduce the scattered radiations and reduce the artifacts in the produced images. The movement of the table through the gantry allows a complete scanning of the desired part of the patient. The degree of X-ray beam absorption (also called attenuation) differs according to the density of each anatomical structure through which the beam passes. The detector receives X-ray photons with different energy intensities and converts them to visual light photons and then to an electrical signal. The electrical signal is conditioned by an electron amplifier and converted from a continuous (analog) signal into discrete (digital) signals by an analog to digital converter.

Images are displayed on film or an electric monitor screen. Electric monitor screens are comprised of a matrix divided into squares, which are termed pixels. Each pixel on the screen represents a two-dimensional projection of a three-dimensional volume, which is termed a voxel. Each voxel and pixel is assigned a number reflecting the amount of photon energy absorbed and measured by the detector, which reflects the density of the object that occupied that space at the time of the scan. The larger the assigned number, the greater the brightness of the displayed pixel (and the greater the density of the substance that filled the space in real life).

In addition to transverse slices, coronal, sagittal, and other (oblique) slice planes can be reconstructed from the original 3D volume data by MPR.[17][18][19] The transverse (axial) plane is the traditional plane for viewing CT images, at least in part because it enables analysis of symmetry and because anatomic structures that have pertinence to each other (such as the liver, pancreas, gallbladder, and bile ducts) tend to be more congregated and to be most likely to appear simultaneously on an image in the transverse plane. However, other viewing images using planes may be preferential for specific types of evaluation. For example, the sagittal plane is ideal for imaging midline and other longitudinal structures, such as the spine, uterus, and pituitary gland. The coronal plane is ideal when evaluating symmetry is important for viewing longitudinally oriented structures, such as long bones, the lungs, and certain cerebral gyri. Some hospitals do not use MPR on all CTs in order to save money on data storage. However, MPR allows:

CT Contrast Media Iodine-containing contrast media can be used to improve the contrast of soft tissues on CT images, which is particularly important for identifying structures based on their vascular supply and for situations involving the assessment of tumors and infections. IV contrast media used in clinical practice can be categorized as:

Understanding computed tomography image production and how it affects the interpretation of image findings is a useful skill for interprofessional team members because CT is one of the most widely used imaging technologies for diagnosing medical conditions. As with any imaging technology, there are nuances regarding what types of images can be produced, what limitations the technology has for practical use, and what kind of defects can occur during image production. Because ionizing radiation is a potential concern for patients, it is beneficial for healthcare professionals to explain to them how CT works and how this is related to the risks of radiation, which is reviewed elsewhere.[22]

Furthermore, patients may need to undergo specific preparation and/or actively participate in the process of CT imaging to enable the production of high-quality images, which in turn necessitates effective communication between the health care professionals requesting and performing the scan and between the healthcare professionals and the patient. Healthcare professionals should ensure that patient is hemodynamically stable and in an otherwise suitable condition to be placed in the CT suite, where there may be limited room and supplies to manage patient care in the case of an emergency. CT images should be interpreted in correlation with patient clinical assessment; good communication from the clinical team to the radiologic consultant improves the likelihood that the radiologic report will satisfactorily address the issue or issues that led to the scan being performed.

Workers and linemen with contractors and energy provider Xcel Energy complete electrical work Jan. 18, 2022, on South Post at Fort McCoy, Wis. Fort McCoy and Xcel are in the process of changing from a Delta Electrical System to a Wye Electrical System, Fort McCoy officials said. Wye is a three-phase electrical system that uses a wire for each electrical leg and a separate neutral wire. Delta is also a three-phase, but uses one of the legs as the neutral so it only has three wires. Work will continue throughout the year. (U.S. Army Photo by Scott T. Sturkol, Public Affairs Office, Fort McCoy, Wis.)

In fact, generating an image using a powerful AI model takes as much energy as fully charging your smartphone, according to a new study by researchers at the AI startup Hugging Face and Carnegie Mellon University. However, they found that using an AI model to generate text is significantly less energy-intensive. Creating text 1,000 times only uses as much energy as 16% of a full smartphone charge. 006ab0faaa