Research has shown that pupils can be taught to become more independent in their work and thus become more effective learners. As pupils mature, they can be increasingly encouraged to develop these skills. In most circumstances, good progress can be made if you start small, with a very specific focus. To begin with, you could:

· concentrate on a particular learning skill, for example organising information;

· model for pupils how a particular skill is carried out;

· select exercise carefully:

- to match your objectives;

- to ensure that pupils experience success;

· give good examples and clear success criteria;

· monitor individuals and the whole class and deal with difficulties;

· provide positive feedback, not just marks.

As you begin to foster new habits in your pupils, you can gradually increase expectations. You could:

· set challenging tasks for the whole class, building in the necessary support;

· as a whole class, work collaboratively through the stages of solving a problem, gradually reducing the support you provide;

· focus particularly on understanding problems and planning the solutions;

· include short spells of carefully structured paired or small-group work;

· expect pupils to share, comment on and evaluate each other's work;

· develop thinking skills by raising questions about ways of working and encouraging reflection on strategies for learning.

Motivation

One of the most important areas of research that helps illuminate effective learning is the work of Carol Dweck (1999) on 'self-theories'. One of her research findings is that the majority of pupils have one of two contrasting theories in relation to intelligence. She labels the two theories 'Entity theory', in which you believe that you are born with a fixed amount of intelligence, and 'Incremental theory', in which intelligence can be developed through effort and engagement.

A belief in fixed intelligence raises students' concerns about how smart they are, it creates anxiety about challenges, and it makes failures into a measure of their fixed intelligence. It can therefore create disorganised, defensive, and helpless behaviour.

A belief in malleable intelligence creates a desire for challenge and learning. Setbacks in this framework become an expected part of long­term learning and mastery and are therefore not really failures. Instead they are cues for renewed effort and new strategies.

© Copyright 2000 from Self-theories: their role in motivation, personality and development by Carol Dweck. Reproduced by permission of Routledgeffaylor & Francis Books, Inc.

In order for pupils to be effective learners they need to have a belief that they can become better learners. To encourage this, teachers need to reinforce effort and risk-taking in learning rather than neatness. The 'self system' is fundamental because it underpins motivation.

Helping pupils become more independent

A compelling piece of research was carried out by Boaler (1997) who compared the teaching in two mathematics departments. At 'Amber Hill' pupils were subject to a class-taught, traditional model with the demonstration of set routines and many practice exercises from books and worksheets. At 'Phoenix Park' pupils were taught through a problem-solving approach and were taught methods and procedures when they were needed. The pupils achieved broadly similar results at general exams, although the Amber Hill pupils did better on the 'procedural' or routine questions and the Phoenix Park pupils did better on the 'conceptual' questions.

However, the interviews and observations undertaken by Boaler indicated that the Phoenix Park pupils did not see any boundary between mathematics in the real world and school classrooms. The Amber Hill pupils, however, saw little use for the mathematics that they had learned in school in out-of-school situations and tended to forget what they had learned rather quickly. Encouragingly, Phoenix Park pupils reported that they had developed self-motivation and self-discipline and that the openness of work encouraged them to think for themselves.

The metacognitive approach

An important element in problem solving is metacognition. This term basically encompasses knowledge about one's own thought processes, self-regulation and monitoring of what one is doing, why one is doing it and how what one is doing helps to solve the problem. It is particularly useful when faced by new and difficult problems. This allows one to ascertain whether the strategies one is using are effective, and thus to change strategies if necessary (Schoenfield 1992). It is clear that these kinds of thinking skill are of great importance to children, not only to develop their problem solving, but also to develop thinking skills more generally. Developing metacognition will also lead pupils to be more aware of their own strengths and weaknesses (Schoenfield 1987).

A range of studies provides compelling evidence that teaching approaches which include metacognitive aspects are very effective. For example, Wang, Haertel and Walberg (1993), in a review of research on instruction, found that metacognitive approaches to learning a process had some of the biggest impacts.

Schoenfield (1987) suggests activities such as showing a video of other pupils engaged in cooperative problem solving, so that pupils can see others using effective problem-solving strategies. This can impress upon them the importance of awareness of what they are doing.

Subject-based approaches: cognitive acceleration in science and maths

Some research has shown that it is more effective to teach thinking skills in a subject-based rather than a decontextualised way. The Cognitive Acceleration in Science Education Project (CASE) (Adey and Shayer 1994) and Mathematics Education Project (CAME) follow from this research.

The CASE project, containing 32 lessons, has five main elements.

· Concrete preparation is needed to introduce the necessary vocabulary and clarify the terms in which the problem is to be set. This means that the teacher needs to set the problem in context, and explain the meaning of the vocabulary that the pupil will need.

· The teacher needs to introduce 'cognitive conflict'. This occurs when pupils are introduced to an experience which they find puzzling or which contradicts their prior knowledge or understanding.

· Pupils then need to move on to a construction zone activity. This is an activity which ensures that pupils go beyond their current levels of understanding and competencies. Teachers can help pupils do this by helping them to build up, step by step, the higher-level reasoning patterns they need to access-

· Pupils need to reflect consciously on their problem solving (metacognition) in ways similar to those described above.

· Pupils then need to 'bridge' their new skills or knowledge, in other words to be able to apply it in different contexts.

Learning to learn

The Campaign for Learning is also conducting research into developing learning skills. Early findings by Jill Rodd (2002) in the Learning to learn in schools project support the idea that pupils become more motivated to learn and so standards improve when teachers:

· spend time creating a safe, comfortable yet stimulating classroom environment;

· are aware of pupils' different learning styles and adapt their teaching accordingly;

· help pupils to develop an understanding of how they learn most effectively and teach them strategies to enhance their learning skills;

· motivate pupils by relating learning to pupils' personal experience in relevant ways;

· encourage pupils to see learning in its widest context in and outside the classroom.

Summary of research findings from Rodd. J. (2002). Learning to learn in schools: phase 1 project research report. Campaign for learning. Used with permission.