Drill & Practice

Introduction

With the drastic evolution of technology, the necessity to shift teaching and learning is inevitable. These pedagogical shifts have reshaped what learning looks like from ten or twenty years ago. Twenty years ago, the classroom would consist of students practicing math facts or vocabulary using flashcards or timed tests. However, ten years ago, students would be working on shared computers almost exclusively with drill-and-practice type software. In 1995, Sepehr and Harris cited a “marked movement away from drill-and-practice approaches” (p. 70). Teachers used textbooks and various pedagogical strategies instead of drill-and-practice software because students had difficulty accessing it using microcomputers and were dissatisfied with its application (Sepehr & Harris, 1995).

When approaching a challenging task, we often hear the words, “practice makes perfect.” Developing advanced technology in education gave teachers more access to technology and different learning software types. Most students work seamlessly in digital environments associated with educational software to create or interact productively with technology instead of simply learning from it. Drill-and-practice is a software application that provides “repetitive and cumulative training in learning concepts, immediate feedback, challenge, and early reward, and individualized, self-paced learning” (Herodotou et al., 2022, p. 117). In the classroom, drill-and-practice software enables students to practice what they have learned through repetitive learning exercises that focus on transferring content knowledge and specific skills (Deen et al., 2015). Drill-and-practice software can also support students through intervention to prepare the skills and knowledge needed for college and career readiness (TNTP, 2018). With the abundance of digital options currently available, should drill-and-practice software still be utilized, and how? This literature review aims to answer the question: What effects does drill-and-practice software have on student motivation and overall academic achievement?

Literature Search Strategy

The literature review consists of articles collected via Pollak Library from the EBSCOHOST and ERIC databases through California State University Fullerton. Some articles were gathered from Google Scholar using the following key search terms: drill and practice software, student motivation, student achievement, student performance, student engagement, digital tools, intervention, and education. More than half of the research papers were focused on K-12 education and published within the past ten years. The main themes that emerged from the research are (a) the importance of intervention, (b) software efficacy, and (c) effective software implementation.

The Importance of Intervention

According to TNTP’s Opportunity Myth, many students graduating from high school are not well-equipped or prepared for college and careers (TNTP, 2018). Nelson et al. (2018) report that intervention often focuses on students who demonstrate the most need, omitting other students who may also struggle. Therefore, schools should provide learning intervention opportunities that are both effective and efficient for all students’ needs. Intervention for students as a supplement in addition to core instruction has been shown to have a positive impact on overall academic achievement (Brilz et al., 2014; Burns et al., 2012; Burns et al., 2019; Cook et al., 2022; DeFouw et al., 2021; Lesaca & Falle, 2021; Hunt, 2014). Herodotou et al. (2022) state that students who participated in deliberate practice had better learning outcomes than those who did not participate in drill and practice software. Drill and practice software is a type of intervention in the classroom that can be implemented for students to practice and strengthen their skills.

Students who enter elementary school with low achievement continue to fall behind higher-achieving peers throughout their education (Scrammacca et al., 2020). Intervention for struggling students in any content allows students access to grade-level content. Increasing math fact fluency improves other mathematical deficits (Lin & Kubina, 2005). Through automaticity, or “seemingly unconscious recall,” math facts may help when completing more complex math tasks (Lesaca & Falle, 2021, p. 69; Woodward, 2006). Nelson et al. (2018) state that it is important to remediate subskills in conjunction with learning grade-level content. When students receive intervention along with core instruction, students perform better than solely receiving core instruction (Burns et al., 2012; Hunt, 2014). In other words, when using intervention as tier 2 support to supplement core instruction, students show an increase in academic achievement.

Software Efficacy

Analyzing the efficacy of software utilized for instruction and intervention is contingent on the desired learning outcomes. Two criteria can influence these desired learning outcomes: learning theory as well as motivation and achievement (Burns et al., 2019; Deen et al., 2015; Hillmayr et al., 2020; Hohlfeld et al., 2017; Luik, 2011). Drill-and-practice is effective for students who tend to have a good memory and in cases for accuracy, but not in instances that build fluency (Bakker et al., 2016; Burns et al., 2019; Herodotou et al., 2022).

Learning Theory

In a drill-and-practice approach, students use what they have previously learned to apply procedures into practice (Deen et al., 2015). When students use the drill-and-practice software, it supports memorization. The drill-and-practice software also helps them obtain basic knowledge as an internal short-term memory process. According to Deen et al. (2015), learning using drill-and-practice software increased intrinsic regulation. Drill-and-practice games are a more traditional approach that caters to the behaviorist learning theory because students complete lower-level math processes with low effort using their prior knowledge (Archer, 2014; Herodotou et al., 2022). Niederhauser and Stoddart (2001) state that this type of software constitutes a behavior conditioning process because students are provided with a cycle of a problem (stimulus), answer (response), and feedback (reinforcement).

However, a drill-and-practice approach limits students from developing self-directed learning or increasing their critical thinking to explore the contents and skills beyond the traditional classroom (Hohlfeld et al., 2017). In drill-and-practice software, students do not do hands-on activities such as creating a historical video using family photos, analyzing local community data about water quality, or programming a new game to release on iTunes or Google Play. Since the drill and practice software is used by each student individually, it leads to students’ isolated learning, which prevents them from collaborative learning (Inan et al., 2010). Hillmayr et al. (2020) stated that student learning outcomes could be further improved when they worked with their partners, involving interactive and commutative learning. Kuiper and de Pater-Sneep (2014) also found students to be less satisfied with drill-and-practice software, with 60% preferring to complete math exercises on paper instead. Moreover, drill-and-practice programs are less beneficial than simulations and online tutorial systems because they have less structure, limiting guidance and support to enhance student skills (Hillmayr et al., 2020).

Motivation and Achievement

As technology in education continues to evolve, it is important to design and implement software that increases student motivation and achievement. The use of digital tools can have a positive effect on student attitudes and motivation toward a subject (Hillmayr et al., 2020). However, it is necessary to consider the format of the digital tool used. Ormrod et al. (2020) describe motivation as something that “energizes, directs, and sustains behavior” (p. 406). They classify student motivation into two categories: intrinsic, when a student is motivated because they enjoy an activity and find it interesting, and extrinsic, when a student completes an activity to receive an award or avoid punishment (Ormrod et al., 2020). Improved student motivation can lead to increased student achievement. Learning and practicing through a game-like software allows students to engage more with the material they have already learned. Beserra et al. (2017) found that students had higher learning gains and motivation when using a drill-and-practice video game. Deen et al. (2015) found a drill-and-practice software approach to positively impact student satisfaction and reported that students become self-motivated and self-determined with its use. The design of the digital tool is also essential. Beserra et al. (2017) report that a multiple-choice format was more successful in capturing students’ interest than a multiple-choice and constructed response hybrid.

Effective Software Implementation

When teachers plan lessons, it is important to consider strategies to incorporate technology in combination with other modalities. Kukey et al. (2019) recommend combining mathematical drill-and-practice software with concrete materials. Similarly, Hillmayr et al. (2020) report the need for educational software to complement other instructional methods versus replacing them. Integration of drill-and-practice digital tools in the classroom helps students achieve better learning outcomes than those taught without these digital tools due to their struggle to understand these subjects at school (Hillmayr et al., 2020). When students use digital tools such as drill-and-practice software more frequently with different methods, it increases their motivation in the short term, which leads to better performance (Hillmayr et al., 2020). The impact on student outcomes is also positively improved with additional support from well-trained educators or facilitators who play an essential role in successful educational technology integration (Gulliford et al., 2021; Hillmayr et al., 2020). If teachers receive training on effective digital implementation before utilizing the tools in class, along with immediate intervention to support students, it helps improve their performance (Hillmayr et al., 2020; Tzur et al., 2021).

Discussion

Our literature analysis has led us to conclude that drill-and-practice software can be a valuable tool in classrooms today. Its purpose should not be to learn new concepts but to provide practice opportunities for students to improve automaticity for skills already taught. Drill-and-practice software can enable students to strengthen previously learned material while receiving immediate feedback (Hillmayr et al., 2020). Drill-and-practice software should not replace teaching and learning opportunities; it should be used in short sessions to maximize effectiveness with continuous teacher support (Beserra et al., 2019; Tzur et al., 2021; Hillmayr et al., 2020). In order to integrate drill-and-practice software effectively in classrooms, teachers should have software-specific training on the digital tools so they can use them successfully in the classroom to support student learnings to achieve desired learning outcomes (Hillmayr et al., 2020). We recommend that teachers utilize various online resources, such as video tutorials, to support implementation when professional development opportunities are unavailable. Teachers must also consider and be aware of the time and contextual factors of using digital tools to develop an effective computer learning environment to positively impact student learning outcomes (Hillmayr et al., 2020). Task duration is an example of a factor that can impact the efficacy of drill and practice software. According to Beserra et al.’s (2019) study, teachers should have a maximum of 20 minutes for an educational drill-and-practice video game to improve the quality of learning progress.

Even though drill-and-practice software is beneficial to support student learning, it has some drawbacks in teaching. Drill-and-practice software limits student self-directed and collaborative learning, can have lower satisfaction than the pencil-paper approach, and is less beneficial than simulations or online tutorial systems (Hillmayr et al., 2020; Inan et al., 2010; Kuiper & de Pater-Sneep, 2014). Therefore, teachers should combine different learning methods with various digital tools, drill-and-practice software, and interventions to create an effective learning environment so that teachers can support students’ needs to enhance their skills and knowledge.